The use of coarse spatial resolution but high temporal resolution AVHRR 1 KM data was found to be very much useful for macro-scale land cover assessment and monitoring of Malaysia. The overall methodology and classification system developed in reference to other Asian countries was also found to be well suited in case of Malaysia.
Broad categorisation of forest and non-forest areas was made possible with the limited imageries at hand, often covered with clouds in much part of the country. Persistent cloud cover in both Peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak/Sabah was found to be the major hindrance in further segregating the land cover classes. The availability of cloud free images spreading over different seasons will definitely be an advantage to increase the classification accuracy.
Areas that have undergone major land cover transformations (gross change) during the span of 7 years (1985/86-1992/93) were delineated for Peninsular Malaysia. Due the unavailability of 1985/86 data for two seasons, land cover map was not produced and hence change comparison in this part was not performed.
From the analysis, it was found that the deforestation in Peninsular Malaysia is going on at the rate of 2.6% per annum. One important assumption is that percent of cloud cover in both 1985/86 and 1992/93 images is not significantly different. The main reason for the change is associated with the conversion of forest land to agricultural lands.
GIS data layers were used to improve the classification accuracy during the analysis. The database was found to be extremely useful as a secondary information source for the iterative labelling. For in-depth understanding of the nature and mechanism of land cover transformation, detailed investigation using high resolution satellite data is recommended in the future. Monitoring of land cover status using AVHRR data in a biannual basis is recommended to rectify the classification errors and also for the refinement of the methodology.
References
Chiew, T.H., 1995. Forest Resources Monitoring Systems in Malaysia. Paper presented at the Expert Consultation on Forest Resources Monitoring Systems, 23 February – 3 March, 1995, FAO/RAPA, Bangkok, Thailand
Evans, D.L., Z. Zhu, S. Eggen-McIntosh, P.G. Mayoral, and J.L. Ormelas de Anda. 1992. Mapping Mexico’s Forest Lands with Advanced High Resolution Radiometer, Research Note SO-367, US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station.
Giri, C. and Shrestha, S. 1996. Land Cover Mapping and Monitoring from NOAA AVHRR data in Bangladesh. International Journal of Remote Sensing, Vol. 17, No. 14, pp. 2749-2759.
Goward, S.N.; A. Kerber, and V. Kalb. 1987. Comparison of North and South American Biomass from AVHRR Observations. Geocarto International, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 27-39.
Justice, C.O., J.R.G. Townshend, B.N. Holben, and C.J. Tucker. 1985. Analysis of the Phenology of Global Vegetation using Meteorological Satellite Data. International Journal of Remote Sensing, Vol. 6, pp. 1271-1318
Kumari, K. 1996. Is Malaysian Forest Policy and Legislation Conducive to Multiple-use Forest Management ?. http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/forestry/unasylva/183/183e.htm
Loveland, T.R., J.W. Merchant, D.O. Ohlen, and J.F. Brown. 1991. Development of Land Cover Characteristics Database for Conterminous U.S.. Photogrametric Engineering and Remote Sensing, Vol. 57, No. 11, pp. 1453-1463.
Malingreau, J.P., and C.J. Tucker. 1987. The contribution of AVHRR data for Measuring and Understanding Global Processes: Large-scale Deforestation in the Amazon Basin. Remote Sensing : Understanding the Earth as a System. Proceedings of the 1987 International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGRASS’87), Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, New York.
MTC, 1996. Forestry Policies. http://www.mtc.com.my/come-in.htm.
Appendix
Policy Implications
Like many other Asian countries, hunting, gathering of forest products and shifting cultivation practices in Malaysia were started since time immemorial. The use of forests was diversified to various uses such as clearance of forests for mining, for spice plantation, and for rubber oil palm and cocoa plantation. To address these issues, a number of initiatives were introduced as follows.
1879 report on the forests of the Peninsula
1890s resolution of forests from 1890s
1900 report on forest administration with recommendations for the future management of the forests
1875 land order to restrict shifting cultivation in Sarawak
1901 the appointment of first Chief Forest Officer for the Federated Malay Straits Settlements
1930 forest law and rules enacted focussing on scientific management and control over the protective and productive functions of forest and systematic forestry operations, research and training
1914 The Sabah Forest Department was formed
1919 The Sarawak Forest Department was established
1922 the first notable official statement of forestry policy
1952 an Interim Forest Policy for the Federation of Malaya
1954 Sarawak’s Statement of Forest Policy
1955 A memorandum on Forest policy in the Federation of Malaya and Proposals for its Amendment and Clarification
1969 An interim National Forest Policy for Peninsular Malaysia was approved
1969 A draft of "National Forest Act"
1973 National Forest Act was revised
1970 Forest Development Strategies aimed at maximizing sustainable socio-economic benefits from forestry were proposed for Peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak by UNDP/FAO Forestry and Forestry Industries Development Project
1971 National Forestry Council established
1972 Wildlife Act
1978 The National Forest Policy for Peninsular Malaysia was approved by the National Forestry Council and endorsed by the National Land Council in 1978 (the policy is supported by Sabah and Sarawak and adopted by all the states in Peninsular Malaysia)
1984 National Forestry Act Wood Industries Act
1992 National Forest Policy (revised)
1993 National Forestry Act (Amendment)
1993 Guidelines for the interpretation of classification of permanent forest reserves was accepted