4.     Research Studies into Air Pollution

Institutional capacity to conduct air pollution related studies exists in various private and public sector organizations in Pakistan.  Over the past 25 years nearly 200 papers have been published by various researchers on the issue of air pollution in Pakistan.  In this section, the institutional capacity and published studies are reviewed.

4.1        Institutional Capacity

As part of this project, a nationwide postal survey was conducted to collect data on the expertise and technical resources available in the country.  The information in this section is primarily based on the response received to the survey and on a review of the technical literature published by research organizations.

For the purpose of this review, five categories of organizations are defined:

1.      Regulatory agencies

2.      Public sector organizations

3.      Educational institutions

4.      Non-government organizations (NGOs)

5.      Private sector organizations.

The capabilities of these organizations are discussed separately below.

4.1.1        Regulatory Agencies

This category includes the federal environmental protection agency (Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency or the Pak-EPA) and the four provincial EPAs (NWFP EPA, Punjab Environmental Protection Department, Sindh EPA and the Balochistan EPA).  These organizations function under the power delegated to them by the Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997.  The Act has assigned a broad-based role to the EPAs which includes promotion of research and the development of technology for prevention of pollution and protection of the environment.

The EPAs have very limited capacity to conduct in-house research on air quality issues.  The Pak-EPA has developed an environmental laboratory for chemical analysis of water samples.  The laboratory also has limited stack emission, vehicular emission and ambient air quality measurement capabilities.  The Sindh EPA and the Punjab Environmental Protection Department have two mobile ambient air quality assessment stations.[1]  The EPAs have commissioned few studies to assess the urban air quality in their respective provinces.

4.1.2        Public Sector Organizations

There are over 200 public sector research organizations in the country.  Although none of them are dedicated to air pollution research, the mandate of many of these organizations includes work that is closely related to air quality.  A handful of organizations have carried out work for the air pollution issue and have published research articles.  The organizations that are particularly active in the field of air quality monitoring are:

1.      Hydrocarbon Development Institute of Pakistan (HDIP)

2.      National Energy Conservation Center (ENERCON)

3.      National Institute of Health (NIH)

4.      National Physical and Standards Laboratory (NPSL)

5.      National Transport Research Center (NTRC)

6.      Pakistan Atomic Energy Agency (PAEC)

7.      Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (PCSIR)

8.      Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD)

9.      Pakistan Space and Upper Air Research Organization (SUPARCO).

Several of these organizations have published papers on air quality and the impacts of air pollution.  SUPARCO and PCSIR have access to mobile monitoring stations which are used for ambient air quality assessment.  PAEC has conducted several studies in air pollution related areas including transboundary transport of air pollutants using the RAINS-Asia model.  Most of these organizations have laboratories that can be used to study dry and wet deposition.  The capabilities of these organizations assessed on the basis of their mandate or published work is summarized in Exhibit 4.1.

In addition to the organizations listed above, there are several other organizations that can contribute in the assessment of air pollution impacts.  These include the National Agricultural Research Center, Fuel Research Center, National Building Research Institute, National Institute of Oceanography, and Pakistan Medical Research Council, Pakistan Forest Institute.

Exhibit 4.1:  Technical Capabilities of Public Sector Organizations for Air Pollution Research Studies

 

HDIP

ENERCON

NIH

NPSL

NTRC

PAEC

PCSIR

PMD

SUPARCO

Monitoring and Evaluation

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ambient Air Quality

 

 

 

 

 

Y

Y

 

Y

Exposure

Y

 

Y

Y

 

Y

Y

 

Y

Source Emission

 

Y

 

 

Y

 

 

 

 

Emissions Inventory Development

Y

Y

 

 

Y

Y

Y

 

Y

Assessment and Research

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ambient Air Quality

 

 

 

 

 

Y

Y

Y

Y

Health Impacts

 

 

Y

 

 

Y

 

 

 

Emission Factor Development

Y

Y

 

Y

Y

Y

Y

 

 

Abatement Measures

 

Y

 

Y

Y

Y

Y

 

Y

Pollutant Transport

 

 

 

 

 

Y

Y

Y

Y

Control and Enforcement

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Air Quality Standards Development

Y

 

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y

 

Y

Standards for Monitoring and Testing

 

 

 

Y

Y

Y

Y

 

Y

Training of Manpower for Monitoring

 

 

 

 

 

Y

Y

Y

Y

 

4.1.3        Educational Institutions

There are more than 60 universities and institutes of higher learning, including medical and engineering colleges, in the country.  Of these, six universities possess departments or institutes dedicated to environmental research or teaching.  These are:

1.      University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore

2.      NED University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi

3.      National University of Science and Technology, Rawalpindi

4.      University of Peshawar, Peshawar

5.      University of Karachi, Karachi

6.      Sir Syed University of Science and Technology, Karachi.

These institutes are capable of playing a very important role in addressing air pollution issues in the country by conducting research, supporting the EPAs in providing technical expertise in policy matters and training manpower for monitoring.  However, lack of technical and financial resources often hampers their work.  Although, there are several qualified and experienced persons serving on the faculty of these organizations, the organizations themselves suffer from lack of laboratory facilities, poorly equipped libraries, lack of means to coordinate with other experts, and inadequate support for research students.  The inability to attract research funds can be attributed, among other reasons, to non-existence of a system for cooperation with the industry, private sector, and the government.  In the absence of such a system the education institutes rely primarily on the government for research grants.  The government’s ability to fund such research is constrained by limited resources.

Even under these conditions, these institutes have succeeded in conducting various studies on air pollution monitoring, source emissions, ambient air quality, pollutant transport, and abatement measures.

4.1.4        Non-Government Organizations

There are many NGOs operating in the country at the national and regional levels.  The organizations that have been particularly active at the national level include the Sustainable Development Policy Institute, Islamabad, the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the World Wide Fund for Nature-Pakistan (WWF-Pakistan).  These organizations have very little capability to conduct technical research on their own.  However, they have played a crucial role spreading environmental awareness, developing environmental policies and strategies, and development and implementation of environmental regulations.

4.1.5        Private Sector Organizations

Private organizations include industries, commercial laboratories, consulting firms and engineering companies.  Industries have just started to take measures for environmental protection.  In this, they rely primarily on outside expertise to advise them on air pollution control technologies, conduct air quality and stack emission monitoring and provide laboratory services.  Apart from a few multinational companies, the industries do not invest in hiring in-house environmental experts.

There are several consulting and commercial firms that provide stack and ambient air monitoring services.  A few companies also have the capability to conduct air dispersion modeling for pollutant transport.

4.2        Atmospheric Transport of Air Pollutants

Transport of pollutants in the atmosphere and the acidification issue caused by sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions has been studied by the Applied Systems Analysis Group of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, Islamabad.  The group used the RAINS-Asia model to simulate the emissions, transport of pollutants and acid rain in Pakistan.  The study concluded that some areas of the country are at a very high risk of acidification by the year 2020 unless SO2 emissions are reduced.

Simulation of pollutant transport in the atmosphere at small-scale (distance less than 100 km) using air dispersion models is conducted by various organizations in Pakistan.  The work is usually carried out to assess the impacts of pollutant emissions from industrial sources.  However, no significant research paper on the pollutant transport at small scale has been published.

4.3        National Air Quality Criteria and Standards

The National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS) were first introduced in 1993.  For gaseous emissions, NEQS imposed maximum limits on concentration of pollutants in industrial emissions.  The pollutants for which limits were proposed included particulate matter, hydrogen chloride, chlorine, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur oxide, carbon monoxide, lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic, copper, antimony, zinc, nitrogen and oxides. Limits were also proposed for the opacity of the smoke emitted from the stacks.

For vehicle exhaust emissions, NEQS prescribed limits on smoke opacity and carbon monoxide concentration.

In the middle of 1990s many new thermal power plants based on furnace oil and diesel were installed in Pakistan by the private sector.  To address the air pollution concerns from these plants the NEQS was amended in 1995.  The amendment introduced new sets of emission and ambient air quality criteria for SO2 and nitrogen oxides.  The following standards were introduced:

1.      Limits were imposed on the total amount of sulfur that can be emitted by a power plant in one day.  The limit is based on the background concentration of the SO2 concentration in the ambient air

2.      Limits were imposed on the increment to ground level concentration of SO2 in the ambient air due to power plants

3.      Limits were imposed on the maximum concentration of nitrogen oxide in the area surrounding a power plant

4.      Limits were imposed on the emission level of nitrogen oxides based on the fuel consumption of a power plant.

The ‘revised NEQS for power plants,’ as it is often referred to, is applicable to power plants operating on oil and coal only.

In 1999, after an extensive process of consultation with the industry, some of the NEQS limits on the maximum allowable concentration of pollutants in gaseous emission from industrial sources were changed.  The 1999 version of the NEQS was approved by the Pakistan Environmental Protection Council, the highest decision making body in Pakistan on environment, and awaits formal notification in the official gazette for promulgation.  The 1993 NEQS, the revised NEQS for power plants and the 1999 NEQS are shown in Exhibit 4.2 at the end of this chapter. 

In the absence of a national ambient air quality standard, the World Bank proposed guidelines for ambient air quality are often used.  These guidelines are particularly used for industrial projects that are funded by the World Bank or the International Finance Corporation. 

4.4        Impacts of Air Pollution

A review of the articles published on the subject of air pollution shows that although several articles are published on the general environmental impacts of air pollution, very little original research work on the impacts of air pollution has been carried out in Pakistan.

4.4.1        Health Impacts

About 30 papers have been published on environmental issues related to heavy metals, particularly lead.  Very few of these papers actually assess the health impacts.  One study carried out by a team lead by the Aga Khan University Medical College, Karachi estimated the blood lead levels of healthy Karachi population (Manser, 1990).  Mean levels for males, females, soldiers and school children were found to be 34.4, 31.8, 29.9 and 38.2 mg/dl, respectively.  About 93 percent of the cases were found to have elevated lead levels.  Of these 30 percent males and 10 percent females had levels above the safety limits (40 mg/dl).  Ninety two percent children had levels above 25 mg/dl (an irreversible loss of I.Q. can occur in children above this limit).  Pollution by traffic exhaust was assumed to be the principal cause of these high levels.

Another study (Hanif, 1992) carried out in Lahore found blood lead levels of 32.65, 97.55 and 125 mg/dl in samples taken from persons living in clean areas, persons living close to heavy traffic areas and persons working at petrol pumps, respectively.

A study carried out in Quetta (Zaidi, 1997) found a high correlation between the distribution of lead deposited on roadside trees and the occurrence of high blood pressure, ear, nose and throat related illnesses, fatigue, gastrointestinal diseases, and cancer among people living in those areas.  Similar results were also found by Kamal, 1996 for several other metals.

Rehman, 1993 reported an increase in the number of patients suffering from air pollution related diseases in the Karachi city hospitals.

4.4.2        Impacts on Vegetation

Some studies have been carried out on the impacts of air pollution on vegetation.  Ahmed, 1986 studied the effect of air pollution caused by automobile exhausts and industries on the chlorophyll and protein contents of some plants growing in Karachi.  He found that, in general, pollution stress showed a decrease in the chlorophyll and protein contents in all but one of the species examined.

Iqbal, 1990 studied leaves from trees in a public park in Lahore and showed that the trace elements deposition was much higher than normal values.  The increase in deposition was linked to traffic pollution.  Ghauri, 1999 carried out similar study in Lahore for lead and cadmium and obtained similar results.

4.5        Future Trends in Emissions

No research study has been carried out on the future trend in emissions of airborne pollutants.


Exhibit 4.2:  Pakistan National Environmental Quality Standards

 I. NEQS For Industrial Gaseous Emissions

 

Parameter

Source of Emission

Units

1993 NEQS (1)

Notes

1999 NEQS (4)

 

1.

Smoke

Smoke capacity not to exceed

 

40% or
2 on Ringleman Scale

 

40% or
2 on Ringleman Scale or equivalent smoke number

 

2.

Particulate matter

Boilers and furnaces:

 

 

2

 

2

 

 

– Using oil

mg/Nm3

300

 

U

 

 

 

– Using coal

mg/Nm3

500

 

U

 

 

 

– Cement

mg/Nm3

200

 

300

 

 

 

Grinding, crushing, clinkers, coders, and related processes; metallurgical processes, converters, blast furnaces and cupolas

mg/Nm3

500

 

U

 

3.

Hydrogen chloride

Any

mg/Nm3

400

 

U

 

4.

Chlorine

Any

mg/Nm3

150

 

U

 

5.

Hydrogen fluoride

Any

mg/Nm3

150

 

U

 

6.

Hydrogen sulfide

Any

mg/Nm3

10

 

U

 

7.

Sulfur oxide

Sulfuric acid plants

mg/Nm3

400

3

5000

5

 

 

Others

mg/Nm3

400

 

1700

6

8.

Carbon monoxide

Any

mg/Nm3

800

 

??

 

9.

Lead

Any

mg/Nm3

50

 

U

 

I. NEQS For Industrial Gaseous Emissions (Continued)

 

Parameter

Source of Emission

Units

1993 NEQS (1)

Notes

1999 NEQS (4)

 

10.

Mercury

Any

mg/Nm3

10

 

U

 

11.

Cadmium

Any

mg/Nm3

20

 

U

 

12.

Arsenic

Any

mg/Nm3

20

 

U

 

13.

Copper

Any

mg/Nm3

50

 

U

 

14.

Antimony

Any

mg/Nm3

20

 

U

 

15.

Zinc

Any

mg/Nm3

200

 

U

 

16.

Oxides of nitrogen (NOx)

Nitric acid manufacturing units

mg/Nm3

400

3

3000

 

 

 

Other sources

mg/Nm3

400

 

ND

5

 

 

Gas fired

mg/Nm3

ND

 

400

 

 

 

Oil fired

mg/Nm3

ND

 

600

 

 

 

Coal fired

mg/Nm3

ND

 

1200

 

Notes

ND: Not Defined

U: Unchanged

1. Source: Government of Pakistan S. R. O. 742(I)/93, dated August 24, 1993.

2. Based on the assumption that the size of the particles is 10 microns or more.

3. Revised

4. Source:

5. Revised

6. Based on 1% sulfur content in fuel oil.  Higher content of sulfur will cause standards to be pro-rated.

 

II. NEQS Gaseous Emissions from Power Plants Operating on Oil and Coal[2]

A. Sulfur Dioxide

 

 

 

 

Sulfur Dioxide Background levels (ug/m3)

Standards

Background Air Quality (SO2 Basis)

Annual Average

Maximum 24-hr Interval

Criterion I:  Max. SO2 Emissions (tons per day (TPD))

Criterion II:  Max. allowable ground level increment to ambient - One year average (ug/m3)

Unpolluted

< 50

< 200

500

50

Moderately Polluted[3]

 

 

 

 

Low

50

200

500

50

High

100

400

100

10

Very Polluted[4]

> 100

> 400

100

10

B. Nitrogen Oxides

 

 

Ambient Air Concentration

Annual arithmetic mean not to exceed

100 ug/m3 (0.05 ppm)

Emission Levels

Liquid Fossil Fuel

130 ng/J of fuel input

 

Solid Fossil Fuel

300 ng/J of fuel input

 

Lignite Fossil Fuel

260 ng/J of fuel input


 



[1] The Sindh EPA mobile station is operated by the Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Karachi

[2]   Government of Pakistan S. R. O. 1022(I)/95, October 19, 1995.

[3]   For intermediate values between 50 and 100 ug/m3 linear interpolations should be used.

[4]   No projects with sulfur dioxide emissions will be recommended.