Production and consumption of energy typically involves extraction or production of primary energy, processing or refining of primary energy, transformation of energy from one form to another, transportation and distribution of energy and end-use or consumption. The details of the process depend on the type of energy. This section presents a summary of energy production and consumption in Pakistan.
Primary commercial energy produced in Pakistan includes natural gas, crude oil, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), coal, hydro electricity and nuclear electricity. The consumption figures by year for commercial energy are shown in Exhibit 3.1. Production and consumption of individual fuels are discussed below.
Natural gas is produced from about 30 gas fields in Pakistan.[1] The total estimated natural gas reserves in the country as on June 30, 1999 amounted to 0.58 trillion cubic meters. The total production in 1998-1999 was 20,432 million cubic meters, with a net energy value of 16.32 mtoe.[2] The largest field, located at Sui, Balochistan, produced 8,638 million cubic meters of natural gas, ie, 42 percent of the total production.
A portion of the produced gas is consumed in the processing plants and in compression stations at the pipeline. The remaining natural gas is distributed through a network of transmission and distribution pipelines operated by two transmission and distribution companies. The total length of the network is 58,667 km.
In 1999 there were 3.171 million domestic, 57 thousand commercial and 4.4 thousand industrial consumers. After subtracting the transmission and distribution losses the total gas available for consumers in 1998-1999 was 18,005 million cubic meters.
Crude oil is produced from about 70 oil fields in Pakistan. The total estimated crude oil reserves in the country as on June 30, 1999 amounted to 250 million barrels. The total production in 1998-1999 was 19,985,677 barrels with a net energy value of 2.68 mtoe.
There are four petroleum refineries in Pakistan. In 1998-1999 the refineries processed 6.52 million tonnes of crude oil, of which 2.12 million tonnes (32.6 percent of the total) was locally produced crude and the remaining 4.40 million tonnes were imported. The refineries produced 5.93 million tonnes of fuel oils including motor spirits, kerosene, diesel, aviation fuels, furnace oil, naphtha, and LPG. In the same period, 10.93 million tonnes of fuel oil mainly comprising high speed diesel and furnace oil were imported. The total production of non-energy products (lubricant, solvent oils, asphalt, etc.) in 1998-1999 was 0.41 million tonnes.
Crude oil and petroleum products are transmitted and distributed by pipelines, rail lorries and road tankers. There are about 2,000 km of oil pipelines in the country of which about 1,250 km are cross-country.
In 1998-1999, oil refineries in Pakistan produced 68,048 tonnes of LPG, whereas the oil processing plants at the oil fields produced 137,891 tonnes of LPG. Nearly, 29,000 tonnes of LPG were imported during the period.
There are about 15 coalfields in Pakistan of which nine are developed. In 1998-1999 the total production of coal from these fields was 3.46 million tonnes.
There are three large hydropower plants in the country with a total installed capacity of 4,718 MW. In addition, electricity is produced by nine small hydel plants with a total installed capacity of 108 MW. In 1998-1999, the total electricity generated by these plants was 22,449 GWh.
In 1998-1999 there was one nuclear power plant with a capacity of 137 MW operating in the country. During the year, the plant produced 284 GWh of electricity.[3]
Reliable historical data for
biofuel (fuelwood, animal residue, crop residue, and wood charcoal) consumption
is not available. A nationwide
household energy survey was conducted in 1991 (HESS, 1993). In 1991, the total consumption of biofuel in
Pakistan, as reported by this study, was 21.0 mtoe. The annual growth rate of biofuel consumption was reported to be
2 percent. The biofuel consumption for
1998-1999 estimated on the basis of this growth rate was 24.6 mtoe, which
amounts to about 36 percent of the total primary energy consumption.
Consumption of final energy by sectors and fuels is shown in Exhibit 3.3. A breakdown for mobile sources is shown in Exhibit 3.4.
Exhibit 3.1: Primary Commercial Energy Consumption in Pakistan
|
Year |
Consumption (mtoe) |
Oil |
Gas |
LPG |
Coal |
Hydro-electricity |
Nuclear Electricity |
|
1971-72 |
7.21 |
42.9% |
35.6% |
0.1% |
8.3% |
12.8% |
0.3% |
|
1972-73 |
7.74 |
40.0% |
37.4% |
0.1% |
7.5% |
14.1% |
0.9% |
|
1973-74 |
8.33 |
39.5% |
39.7% |
0.1% |
7.0% |
12.5% |
1.2% |
|
1974-75 |
9.29 |
41.2% |
38.6% |
0.2% |
6.7% |
11.8% |
1.5% |
|
1975-76 |
9.05 |
38.9% |
38.5% |
0.3% |
5.7% |
15.1% |
1.5% |
|
1976-77 |
9.59 |
39.0% |
40.0% |
0.3% |
6.1% |
13.6% |
1.0% |
|
1977-78 |
10.68 |
37.7% |
38.3% |
0.3% |
5.6% |
17.5% |
0.5% |
|
1978-79 |
11.65 |
38.8% |
37.2% |
0.4% |
5.6% |
17.8% |
0.2% |
|
1979-80 |
13.02 |
36.7% |
40.5% |
0.3% |
5.7% |
16.8% |
0.0% |
|
1980-81 |
14.07 |
36.7% |
41.6% |
0.3% |
5.3% |
15.8% |
0.3% |
|
1981-82 |
14.79 |
36.8% |
40.9% |
0.4% |
5.6% |
16.1% |
0.2% |
|
1982-83 |
16.23 |
38.1% |
39.1% |
0.3% |
4.7% |
17.6% |
0.3% |
|
1983-84 |
16.97 |
40.1% |
34.9% |
0.5% |
5.2% |
19.0% |
0.4% |
|
1984-85 |
17.96 |
40.8% |
35.4% |
0.4% |
5.9% |
17.1% |
0.4% |
|
1985-86 |
19.15 |
41.1% |
34.5% |
0.4% |
5.4% |
18.1% |
0.5% |
|
1986-87 |
20.93 |
41.4% |
34.2% |
0.5% |
5.1% |
18.3% |
0.5% |
|
1987-88 |
26.00 |
38.8% |
37.1% |
0.4% |
7.3% |
16.2% |
0.3% |
|
1988-89 |
26.96 |
39.5% |
37.3% |
0.4% |
6.9% |
15.9% |
0.0% |
|
1989-90 |
29.24 |
39.3% |
37.7% |
0.4% |
7.7% |
14.6% |
0.3% |
|
1990-91 |
30.06 |
38.1% |
38.8% |
0.4% |
7.0% |
15.3% |
0.3% |
|
1991-92 |
32.26 |
39.5% |
38.4% |
0.3% |
6.8% |
14.6% |
0.3% |
|
1992-93 |
34.79 |
39.9% |
37.6% |
0.3% |
6.4% |
15.3% |
0.4% |
|
1993-94 |
37.06 |
41.3% |
38.3% |
0.3% |
6.6% |
13.2% |
0.3% |
|
1994-95 |
38.38 |
41.2% |
37.3% |
0.4% |
5.7% |
15.0% |
0.3% |
|
1995-96 |
41.25 |
42.2% |
36.9% |
0.5% |
6.0% |
14.2% |
0.2% |
|
1996-97 |
41.19 |
42.6% |
38.5% |
0.4% |
5.5% |
12.8% |
0.2% |
|
1997-98 |
42.39 |
43.6% |
37.6% |
0.4% |
5.1% |
13.1% |
0.2% |
|
1998-99 |
44.05 |
42.8% |
38.6% |
0.4% |
5.1% |
12.8% |
0.2% |
Source: Various editions of the Pakistan Energy Yearbook (see References)
Exhibit 3.2: Total Primary Energy Consumption in Pakistan
|
Year |
Consumption (mtoe) |
Oil |
Gas |
LPG |
Coal |
Hydro-electricity |
Nuclear Electricity |
Biofuels |
|
1971-72 |
21.62 |
14.3% |
11.9% |
0.0% |
2.8% |
4.3% |
0.1% |
66.7% |
|
1972-73 |
22.44 |
13.8% |
12.9% |
0.0% |
2.6% |
4.9% |
0.3% |
65.5% |
|
1973-74 |
23.33 |
14.1% |
14.2% |
0.0% |
2.5% |
4.5% |
0.4% |
64.3% |
|
1974-75 |
24.59 |
15.6% |
14.6% |
0.1% |
2.5% |
4.5% |
0.6% |
62.2% |
|
1975-76 |
24.66 |
14.3% |
14.1% |
0.1% |
2.1% |
5.5% |
0.6% |
63.3% |
|
1976-77 |
25.51 |
14.7% |
15.0% |
0.1% |
2.3% |
5.1% |
0.4% |
62.4% |
|
1977-78 |
26.91 |
15.0% |
15.2% |
0.1% |
2.2% |
6.9% |
0.2% |
60.3% |
|
1978-79 |
28.20 |
16.0% |
15.4% |
0.2% |
2.3% |
7.3% |
0.1% |
58.7% |
|
1979-80 |
29.91 |
16.0% |
17.6% |
0.1% |
2.5% |
7.3% |
0.0% |
56.5% |
|
1980-81 |
31.30 |
16.5% |
18.7% |
0.1% |
2.4% |
7.1% |
0.1% |
55.0% |
|
1981-82 |
32.36 |
16.8% |
18.7% |
0.2% |
2.6% |
7.4% |
0.1% |
54.3% |
|
1982-83 |
34.16 |
18.1% |
18.6% |
0.1% |
2.2% |
8.4% |
0.1% |
52.5% |
|
1983-84 |
35.25 |
19.3% |
16.8% |
0.2% |
2.5% |
9.1% |
0.2% |
51.9% |
|
1984-85 |
36.61 |
20.0% |
17.4% |
0.2% |
2.9% |
8.4% |
0.2% |
50.9% |
|
1985-86 |
38.17 |
20.6% |
17.3% |
0.2% |
2.7% |
9.1% |
0.3% |
49.8% |
|
1986-87 |
40.34 |
21.5% |
17.7% |
0.3% |
2.6% |
9.5% |
0.3% |
48.1% |
|
1987-88 |
45.79 |
22.0% |
21.1% |
0.2% |
4.1% |
9.2% |
0.2% |
43.2% |
|
1988-89 |
47.15 |
22.6% |
21.3% |
0.2% |
3.9% |
9.1% |
0.0% |
42.8% |
|
1989-90 |
49.83 |
23.1% |
22.1% |
0.2% |
4.5% |
8.6% |
0.2% |
41.3% |
|
1990-91 |
51.06 |
22.4% |
22.8% |
0.2% |
4.1% |
9.0% |
0.2% |
41.1% |
|
1991-92 |
53.68 |
23.7% |
23.1% |
0.2% |
4.1% |
8.8% |
0.2% |
39.9% |
|
1992-93 |
56.64 |
24.5% |
23.1% |
0.2% |
3.9% |
9.4% |
0.2% |
38.6% |
|
1993-94 |
59.34 |
25.8% |
23.9% |
0.2% |
4.1% |
8.2% |
0.2% |
37.6% |
|
1994-95 |
61.11 |
25.9% |
23.4% |
0.3% |
3.6% |
9.4% |
0.2% |
37.2% |
|
1995-96 |
64.43 |
27.0% |
23.6% |
0.3% |
3.8% |
9.1% |
0.1% |
36.0% |
|
1996-97 |
64.84 |
27.1% |
24.5% |
0.3% |
3.5% |
8.1% |
0.1% |
36.5% |
|
1997-98 |
66.51 |
27.8% |
24.0% |
0.3% |
3.3% |
8.3% |
0.1% |
36.3% |
|
1998-99 |
68.65 |
27.5% |
24.8% |
0.3% |
3.3% |
8.2% |
0.1% |
35.8% |
Source: Various editions of the Pakistan Energy Yearbook (see References)
Exhibit 3.3: Final Energy Consumption for 1998-99
|
Sector |
Consumption (mtoe) |
Oil |
Gas |
Electricity |
Coal |
Biofuels |
|
Industry |
10.43 |
21.2% |
38.9% |
9.9% |
13.8% |
16.1% |
|
Domestic-Residential |
27.70 |
2.7% |
11.7% |
6.0% |
0.0% |
79.6% |
|
Domestic-Commercial |
1.69 |
4.0% |
31.4% |
12.3% |
|
52.3% |
|
Domestic-Agriculture |
0.76 |
36.2% |
|
63.8% |
|
|
|
Transport |
8.76 |
99.4% |
0.6% |
0.0% |
|
|
|
Government |
0.73 |
56.7% |
|
43.3% |
|
|
|
Power Generation |
10.11 |
56.3% |
41.8% |
0.0% |
1.9% |
0.0% |
|
Total excluding Power Generation |
50.07 |
24.8% |
15.8% |
7.4% |
2.9% |
49.1% |
Source: PYEB, 1999
Exhibit 3.4: Energy Consumption in Mobile Sources for 1998
|
Vehicle Category |
Size |
Fuel |
Consumption (mtoe) |
|
Taxi Cabs |
Small (< 1.5 liters) |
LPG |
0.007 |
|
Taxi Cabs |
Small (< 1.5 liters) |
CNG |
0.002 |
|
Motor Cars |
Small (< 1.5 liters) |
CNG |
0.007 |
|
Motor Cars |
Medium (1.5-2.0 liters) |
CNG |
0.003 |
|
Motorcycles/Scooters |
|
Gasoline |
0.325 |
|
Rickshaws |
|
Gasoline |
0.207 |
|
Taxi Cabs |
Small (< 1.5 liters) |
Gasoline |
0.100 |
|
Motor Cars |
Small (< 1.5 liters) |
Gasoline |
0.308 |
|
Motor Cars |
Medium (1.5-2.0 liters) |
Gasoline |
0.133 |
|
Motor Cars |
Large (> 2.0 liters) |
Gasoline |
0.041 |
|
Jeeps |
|
Gasoline |
0.019 |
|
Delivery Vans |
|
Gasoline |
0.301 |
|
Others |
|
Gasoline |
0.056 |
|
Taxi Cabs |
Small (< 1.5 liters) |
Diesel |
0.010 |
|
Motor Cars |
Medium (1.5-2.0 liters) |
Diesel |
0.009 |
|
Motor Cars |
Large (> 2.0 liters) |
Diesel |
0.006 |
|
Jeeps |
|
Diesel |
0.054 |
|
Station Wagons |
|
Diesel |
0.365 |
|
Delivery Vans |
|
Diesel |
0.046 |
|
Buses |
|
Diesel |
1.269 |
|
Trucks |
|
Diesel |
2.367 |
|
Tractors |
|
Diesel |
2.286 |
|
Trains |
|
Diesel |
0.153 |
|
Trains |
|
FO |
0.004 |
|
Trains |
|
Electric |
0.001 |
|
Boats |
|
Diesel and Gasoline |
|
Source: NEIP, 2000
Note: Fuel consumption for boats is not
known.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is mainly emitted by combustion of sulfur containing fuels. The main sources include combustion of coal in power plants and brick kilns; furnace oil in power plants and industries; diesel oil in power plants and transport; and fuelwood in the residential sector.
SO2 is also emitted during industrial production processes. In Pakistan, the predominant sources are sulfuric acid, paper and cement production and petroleum refining. Exhibit 3.5 presents the product throughput for these industries for 1997-1998.
There are more than a dozen coalfields in Pakistan. The sulfur content of coal from these fields varies over a large range (from 0 percent in case of Jhimpir-Meting to 10 percent in Padhrar in the Central Salt Range). The concentration of sulfur often varies within the field as well.
Lakhra coal field in Sindh is the sole source of coal for the only major coal-based power plant in the country.[4] The average concentration of sulfur in Lakhra coal has been used to represent the sulfur content of coal in the power sector.
To compute the effective sulfur content of coal used in the other sectors, a weighted average of sulfur content in Pakistan’s coalfields has been calculated on the basis of the last six years’ production. Production from Lakhra used in this calculation does not contain the power plant consumption.
The values recommended by IPCC, 1996 are used for sulfur retention in coal combustion. The sulfur content and sulfur retention in coal used in Pakistan is shown in Exhibit 3.6.
Limited reliable information is available on sulfur contents of other fuels used in Pakistan. The value of sulfur concentration in Pakistan’s fuels has been selected in the following manner:
a Any available measurement has been used
a Where no measurement is available but specifications for maximum concentration of sulfur are given, the maximum limit is assumed as the prevailing concentration
a Where no information is available from the above two sources, values recommended by various emissions inventory guidelines and typical values from other countries are reviewed and the most likely value, based on similarity of conditions, is selected. Where different values are given by different sources and not enough information is available to ascertain the likely value for Pakistan, a conservative approach is adopted and the highest value selected.
A complete list of sulfur contents of fuels from several sources, the selected values for sulfur content of Pakistani’s fuels and the rationale for each selection are given in NEIP, 2000.
Exhibit 3.7 shows the sulfur contents of fuels other than coal. Sulfur retention in ash for these fuels is assumed to be zero, as recommended by IPCC, 1996.
The emission factors for industrial production processes are shown in Exhibit 3.8. The cement industry in Pakistan uses several different types of technologies. A composite emission factor for cement production was developed based on the installed capacity of the cement plants in 1997.
The sectoral breakdown of SO2 emissions for 1997-1998 is shown in Exhibit 3.9.
The SO2 emission trend from 1980 to 1998 is shown in Exhibit 3.10.
Exhibit 3.5: Throughput of Industrial Processes that are Sources of SO2 Emission
|
Process |
Product Throughput (‘000 tonnes) |
|
Paper and Pulp Sulfite/Semi-chemical Pulp |
344.8 |
|
Oil Refineries (Throughput) |
6,444.5 |
|
Sulfuric Acid Production |
28.1 |
|
Cement Production |
9,364.0 |
Sources: ES, 1999; PYEB, 1999
Exhibit 3.6: Sulfur Contents and Sulfur Retention in Ash of Coal
|
Fuel Type |
Sulfur Content |
Sulfur Retention |
|
Coking Coal |
0.5% |
5% |
|
Lignite and Sub-Bituminous Coal used in Power Generation |
4.9% |
30% |
|
Lignite and Sub-Bituminous Coal used in other sectors |
5.1% |
30% |
Source: NEIP, 2000
Exhibit 3.7: Sulfur Contents of Fuels Other than Coal
|
Fuel Type |
Sulfur Content |
|
Crude Oil |
1.0% |
|
Aviation Fuel |
0.05% |
|
Gasoline |
0.01% |
|
Kerosene |
0.2% |
|
High Speed Diesel (HSD) |
1.0% |
|
Light Diesel Oil (LDO) |
1.8% |
|
Furnace Oil |
3.0% |
|
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) |
0.00016% |
|
Other Non-Energy Oils |
0.0% |
|
Natural Gas |
0.01% |
|
Biomass (Fuelwood) |
0.2% |
|
Biomass (Crop Residue) |
0.01% |
|
Biomass (Animal Residue) |
0.00225% |
|
Biomass (Wood Charcoal) |
0.0% |
Source: NEIP, 2000
Exhibit 3.8: Emission Factors for SO2 Emission from Industrial Production Processes
|
Process |
Emission Factor |
|
Paper and Pulp Sulfite/Semi-chemical Pulp |
30.0 |
|
Oil Refineries (Throughput) |
1.3 |
|
Sulfuric Acid Production |
17.5 |
|
Cement Production |
0.6 |
Sources: NEIP, 2000
Exhibit 3.9: Sectoral Emission of Sulfur Dioxide for 1997-98
|
Sector |
Emission ('000 tonnes) |
Share |
|
Industry (Combustion) |
317.59 |
41.7% |
|
Industry (Processes) |
24.60 |
3.2% |
|
Domestic-Residential |
54.39 |
7.1% |
|
Domestic-Commercial |
3.37 |
0.4% |
|
Domestic-Agricultural |
8.82 |
1.2% |
|
Transport |
120.87 |
15.9% |
|
Power Generation |
230.25 |
30.2% |
|
Government |
2.45 |
0.3% |
Exhibit 3.10: Sulfur Dioxide Emission for 1980-98
|
Year |
SO2 Emission (‘000 tonnes) |
|
1980 |
253.7 |
|
1985 |
384.6 |
|
1990 |
528.2 |
|
1991 |
524.0 |
|
1992 |
565.5 |
|
1993 |
605.5 |
|
1994 |
664.0 |
|
1995 |
658.5 |
|
1996 |
757.6 |
|
1997 |
754.6 |
|
1998 |
762.3 |
The most common air pollutant oxides of nitrogen are nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Nitrogen oxides are formed during the process of fuel combustion by oxidation of atmospheric and fuel nitrogen. The rate emission depends on many factors such as the design of burner and combustion chamber, the air available during combustion, flame temperature, and nitrogen content of fuel. For these reasons, it is important to categorize the emission sources not only on the basis of fuel but also on the basis of combustion conditions.
Vehicles are the largest source of nitrogen oxide emissions. The total number of vehicles of different categories for 1998 is shown in Exhibit 3.11.
Nitrogen oxides are also emitted during industrial production processes. In Pakistan, the predominant sources are paper and cement production and petroleum refining. The product throughput for these industries for 1997-1998 is given in Exhibit 3.12.
The nitrogen oxide emission factors for fuel combustion in stationary sources are given in Exhibit 3.13.
The nitrogen oxide emission factors for industrial production processes are shown in Exhibit 3.14. The cement industry in Pakistan uses several different types of technologies. A composite emission factor for cement production was developed. based on the installed capacity of the cement plants in 1997.
The nitrogen oxide emission factors for fuel combustion in mobile sources are given in Exhibit 3.15.
The sectoral breakdown of nitrogen oxide emissions for 1997-1998 is shown in Exhibit 3.16.
The nitrogen oxide emission trend from 1980 to 1998 is shown in Exhibit 3.17.
Exhibit 3.11: Number of Mobile Sources
|
Vehicle Category |
Size |
Fuel |
Number (‘000) |
|
Taxi Cabs |
Small (< 1.5 liters) |
LPG |
3.8 |
|
Taxi Cabs |
Small (< 1.5 liters) |
CNG |
1.3 |
|
Motor Cars |
Small (< 1.5 liters) |
CNG |
9.4 |
|
Motor Cars |
Medium (1.5-2.0 liters) |
CNG |
3.4 |
|
Motorcycles/Scooters |
|
Gasoline |
1,843.7 |
|
Rickshaws |
|
Gasoline |
82.9 |
|
Taxi Cabs |
Small (< 1.5 liters) |
Gasoline |
54.9 |
|
Motor Cars |
Small (< 1.5 liters) |
Gasoline |
437.7 |
|
Motor Cars |
Medium (1.5-2.0 liters) |
Gasoline |
148.3 |
|
Motor Cars |
Large (> 2.0 liters) |
Gasoline |
28.7 |
|
Jeeps |
|
Gasoline |
11.5 |
|
Delivery Vans |
|
Gasoline |
148.0 |
|
Others |
|
Gasoline |
89.7 |
|
Taxi Cabs |
Small (< 1.5 liters) |
Diesel |
3.2 |
|
Motor Cars |
Medium (1.5-2.0 liters) |
Diesel |
8.0 |
|
Motor Cars |
Large (> 2.0 liters) |
Diesel |
3.2 |
|
Jeeps |
|
Diesel |
46.0 |
|
Station Wagons |
|
Diesel |
72.6 |
|
Delivery Vans |
|
Diesel |
9.4 |
|
Buses |
|
Diesel |
79.7 |
|
Trucks |
|
Diesel |
136.5 |
|
Tractors |
|
Diesel |
492.2 |
|
Trains |
|
Diesel |
89.6 |
|
Trains |
|
FO |
1.4 |
|
Trains |
|
Electric |
|
|
Boats |
|
Diesel and Gasoline |
14.3 |
Source: NEIP, 2000
Exhibit 3.12: Throughput of Industrial Processes that are Sources of NOX Emission
|
Process |
Product Throughput (‘000 tonnes) |
|
Paper and Pulp Sulfite/Semi-chemical Pulp |
344.8 |
|
Oil Refineries (Throughput) |
6,444.5 |
|
Cement Production |
9,364.0 |
Sources: ES, 1999; PYEB, 1999
Exhibit 3.13: Nitrogen Oxide Emission Factors for Stationary Sources (tonnes/mtoe)
|
|
Industry |
Residential |
Commercial |
Agricultural |
Power |
Other |
|
Lignite and Sub-Bituminous Coal |
6,141 |
4,235 |
|
|
6,141 |
|
|
Kerosene |
|
112 |
|
|
|
112 |
|
High Speed Diesel (HSD) |
57,600 |
|
|
|
12,577 |
|
|
Light Diesel Oil (LDO) |
57,600 |
|
|
57600 |
12,577 |
57,600 |
|
Furnace Oil |
6,844 |
|
|
|
7,153 |
6,844 |
|
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) |
|
3,489 |
3,489 |
|
|
3,489 |
|
Natural Gas |
1,763 |
604 |
604 |
|
5,534 |
|
|
Biomass (Fuelwood) |
1,963 |
2,093 |
2,093 |
|
|
|
|
Biomass (Crop Residue) |
2,791 |
4,187 |
|
|
|
|
|
Biomass (Animal Residue) |
|
4,187 |
|
|
|
|
|
Biomass (Wood Charcoal) |
|
4,187 |
|
|
|
|
Exhibit 3.14: Emission Factors for NOX Emission from Industrial Production Processes
|
Process |
Emission Factor |
|
Paper and Pulp Sulfite/Semi-chemical Pulp |
2.0 |
|
Oil Refineries (Throughput) |
0.3 |
|
Cement Production |
3.1 |
Sources: NEIP, 2000
Exhibit 3.15: Emission Factors for NOX Emission from Mobile Sources
|
Vehicle Category |
Size |
Fuel |
Emission Factor |
|
Taxi Cabs |
Small (< 1.5 liters) |
LPG |
37.68 |
|
Taxi Cabs |
Small (< 1.5 liters) |
CNG |
15.91 |
|
Motor Cars |
Small (< 1.5 liters) |
CNG |
15.91 |
|
Motor Cars |
Medium (1.5-2.0 liters) |
CNG |
15.91 |
|
Motorcycles/Scooters |
|
Gasoline |
5.11 |
|
Rickshaws |
|
Gasoline |
8.37 |
|
Taxi Cabs |
Small (< 1.5 liters) |
Gasoline |
25.12 |
|
Motor Cars |
Small (< 1.5 liters) |
Gasoline |
25.12 |
|
Motor Cars |
Medium (1.5-2.0 liters) |
Gasoline |
25.12 |
|
Motor Cars |
Large (> 2.0 liters) |
Gasoline |
25.12 |
|
Jeeps |
|
Gasoline |
29.31 |
|
Delivery Vans |
|
Gasoline |
29.31 |
|
Others |
|
Gasoline |
49.68 |
|
Taxi Cabs |
Small (< 1.5 liters) |
Diesel |
12.56 |
|
Motor Cars |
Medium (1.5-2.0 liters) |
Diesel |
12.56 |
|
Motor Cars |
Large (> 2.0 liters) |
Diesel |
12.56 |
|
Jeeps |
|
Diesel |
16.75 |
|
Station Wagons |
|
Diesel |
112.39 |
|
Delivery Vans |
|
Diesel |
16.75 |
|
Buses |
|
Diesel |
20.35 |
|
Trucks |
|
Diesel |
41.87 |
|
Tractors |
|
Diesel |
50.24 |
|
Trains |
|
Diesel |
35.78 |
|
Trains |
|
FO |
11.14 |
|
Trains |
|
Electric |
|
|
Boats |
|
Diesel and Gasoline |
|
Source: NEIP, 2000
Exhibit 3.16: Sectoral Emission of Nitrogen Oxides for 1997-98
|
Sector |
Emission ('000 tonnes) |
Share |
|
Industry (Combustion) |
44.0 |
8.8% |
|
Industry (Processes) |
22.4 |
4.5% |
|
Domestic-Residential |
23.4 |
4.7% |
|
Domestic-Commercial |
1.1 |
0.2% |
|
Domestic-Agricultural |
15.5 |
3.1% |
|
Transport |
324.5 |
64.6% |
|
Power Generation |
70.9 |
14.1% |
|
Government |
0.3 |
0.1% |
Exhibit 3.17: Nitrogen Oxides Emission for 1980-98
|
Year |
NOX Emission (‘000 tonnes) |
|
1980 |
151.28 |
|
1985 |
218.32 |
|
1990 |
334.06 |
|
1991 |
330.73 |
|
1992 |
372.52 |
|
1993 |
398.03 |
|
1994 |
425.23 |
|
1995 |
439.45 |
|
1996 |
468.48 |
|
1997 |
482.45 |
|
1998 |
502.16 |
Ammonia is emitted from a number of sources. The largest source is animal husbandry, which accounts for nearly 80 percent of the total emissions. In this inventory, the following sources are included:
a
Animal husbandry
a
Fertilizer
application
a
Fertilizer
production
a
Humans
a
Fossil fuel
combustion.
The emission factors for ammonia have been obtained from Battye, 1994. In certain cases, for example animal husbandry, specific emission factors for Pakistan have been developed using this source. The details of calculation of emission factors are given in NEIP, 2000. The emission factors used to estimate the emissions are shown in Exhibit 3.18.
Exhibit 3.19 presents estimates of ammonia emissions from various sources for 1997-1998.
The ammonia emission trend from 1980 to 1998 is shown in Exhibit 3.20.
Exhibit 3.18: Emission Factors for Ammonia Emission
|
Category |
Source |
Value (kg/unit) |
Unit |
|
Animal Husbandry |
Cattle and Calves-Composite |
22.9 |
Animal |
|
|
Buffaloes |
24.19 |
Animal |
|
|
Chicken-Composite |
0.1718 |
Animal |
|
|
Ducks |
0.117 |
Animal |
|
|
Sheep and Lambs |
3.37 |
Animal |
|
|
Goats |
6.4 |
Animal |
|
|
Horses |
12.2 |
Animal |
|
|
Camels |
12.2 |
Animal |
|
|
Asses |
12.2 |
Animal |
|
|
Mules |
12.2 |
Animal |
|
Fertilizer Application |
Urea |
182 |
Mg N |
|
|
Ammonium Nitrate |
25 |
Mg N |
|
|
Ammonium Sulfate |
97 |
Mg N |
|
|
Ammonium Phosphate |
48 |
Mg N |
|
|
Nitrophosphate |
48 |
Mg N |
|
|
NPK |
48 |
Mg N |
|
Industrial Process |
Ammonium Nitrate - Total |
46.31 |
Mg of Product |
|
|
Urea Manufacture - Total |
9.66 |
Mg of Product |
|
|
Beet Sugar |
0.00262 |
Mg Sugar |
|
Combustion |
Coal |
0.00028 |
Mg coal |
|
|
Fuel Oil |
0.096 |
1000 liters |
|
|
NG-Utility and Industrial Boilers |
51 |
10^6 m3 |
|
|
NG-Commercial Boilers |
78 |
10^6 m3 |
|
|
Mobile Sources - Leaded gasoline |
0.05 |
1000 liters |
|
|
Mobile Sources - Diesel |
0.11 |
1000 liters |
|
Miscellaneous |
Humans |
0.25 |
Person |
Source: NEIP, 2000
Exhibit 3.19: Emission of Ammonia for 1997-98
|
Sector |
Emission ('000 tonnes) |
Share |
|
Livestock |
1,427.7 |
78.5% |
|
Fertilizer Application |
310.7 |
17.1% |
|
Fertilizer Production |
46.4 |
2.6% |
|
Combustions |
2.2 |
0.1% |
|
Humans |
32.6 |
1.8% |
Exhibit 3.20: Ammonia Emission for 1980-98
|
Year |
Emission (‘000 tonnes) |
|
1980 |
1,064.9 |
|
1985 |
1,266.1 |
|
1990 |
1,465.8 |
|
1991 |
1,499.5 |
|
1992 |
1,515.2 |
|
1993 |
1,591.2 |
|
1994 |
1,672.4 |
|
1995 |
1,674.2 |
|
1996 |
1,770.1 |
|
1997 |
1,834.6 |
|
1998 |
1,819.6 |
Suspended particulate matter (SPM) emissions result from both human activities and natural sources. Human activities that are included in the emission estimate are fuel combustion in stationary and mobiles sources and industrial processes (production of paper, nitrogen fertilizer and petroleum refining).
Several sources of SPM emissions are not included in the estimate due to lack of data. These include anthropogenic sources such as crop harvesting, construction activities, and dust stirred up by vehicular traffic on paved and unpaved roads and dust emissions from natural sources. Size based particulate matter emissions have also not been estimated for the same reason.
The sectoral breakdown of SPM emissions for 1997-1998 is shown in Exhibit 3.21.
The SPM emissions trend from 1980 to 1998 is shown in Exhibit 3.22.
Exhibit 3.21: Sectoral Emission of Suspended Particulate Matter for 1997-98
|
Sector |
Emission ('000 tonnes) |
Share |
|
Industry (Combustion) |
61.08 |
10% |
|
Industry (Processes) |
258.37 |
44% |
|
Domestic-Residential |
205.24 |
35% |
|
Domestic-Commercial |
7.40 |
1% |
|
Domestic-Agricultural |
0.48 |
0% |
|
Transport |
35.36 |
6% |
|
Power Generation |
17.67 |
3% |
|
Government |
0.16 |
0% |
Exhibit 3.22: Suspended Particulate Matter Emission for 1980-98
|
Year |
Emission (‘000 tonnes) |
|
1980 |
281.53 |
|
1985 |
355.89 |
|
1990 |
462.12 |
|
1991 |
471.05 |
|
1992 |
494.82 |
|
1993 |
519.86 |
|
1994 |
522.28 |
|
1995 |
525.27 |
|
1996 |
577.79 |
|
1997 |
582.88 |
|
1998 |
585.78 |
[1] All data in this section, unless otherwise stated, is obtained from various publications of Pakistan Energy Yearbook (see references).
[2] Million Tonnes of Oil Equivalent = 41,868 TJ
[3] A second nuclear power plant was commissioned in April 2000.
[4] A multi-fuel power plant in Quetta, Balochistan is also partially fired by coal. Since, the source of coal for this plant is not known, the sulfur content of the coal it uses is not separately calculated. This is unlikely to lead to any major errors in the results, since the total consumption of coal at this power plant is less than 1% of the total indigeneous coal production.