1. Atmospheric transport of Air Pollutants

 

 

Air pollution problem in Nepal is relatively new concern but immerging problem. There are very few studies in the field of air pollution compared with other countries. As a result, absence of long-term research work to supplement the data source has limited to draw a definite trend on air pollution even in the Kathmandu valley. Thus, unless regular monitoring and meteorological conditions are studied it is difficult to know the transboundary effect of the pollutants. The information on air quality, so far, obtained from different sources provides generic information on air quality situations.

The sources of air pollutants include transportation, industrial processes, domestic processes etc. A few past studies have provided estimation of the pollutants released into the atmosphere from the above sectors. Transport sector has been considered the most prominent and vital sectors for contributing a major share of air pollutants in urban areas. Air pollution issues that emerge from the industrial sector are confined to certain industrial locations only. (KEC, MOPE, 1999).
 

1. Transport Sector

 

 

Emission load from the transport sector was presented in the study report of Dhamala (1983), Sharma and Upadhyaya (1995), Shah and Nagpal (1996), Shrestha and Malla (1996) and Adhikari (1998). Dhamala was first to provide the estimation of emission load from the transport sector in the Kathmandu Valley. It was mentioned in his report that transport sector emitted annually 22,000 tons of carbon monoxide, 200 tons of oxides of nitrogen, 400 tons of hydrocarbons and 333 tons of sulfur dioxide in the Kathmandu Valley. According to the estimation of Sharma and Upadhyaya (1995), a total of 15 tone of lead was emitted considering daily gasoline consumption of about 70 thousand liters for the study year .it suggested that nearly 10 tons of Pb dusts got it way into the atmosphere of the Valley. According to Shah and Nagpal (1997), transport sector contributed a total of 570 tons of total suspended particulate matter of less than ten micron in size and sulfur dioxide in the range of 82495 tons in 1993 in the Kathmandu Valley

Shrestha and Malla (1996) estimated the annual emission load of the pollutants from the transport sector. It indicated that a total of about 36 thousand tons of pollutants were released in the Kathmandu Valley in 1993. Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons were the major pollutants released in a large quantity into the atmosphere of the Kathmandu Valley. Emission of carbon monoxide comprised about 65 per cent of the total vehicular emission load. According to the findings of the study, two wheelers were the major contributor of the pollutants and contributed about 56 per cent of the total emissions. Likewise, car and jeep categories of vehicles contributed about 36 per cent of the total pollutants into the atmosphere. According to Shrestha and Malla, transport sector contributed 23,693 tons of CO, 11024 tons of HC, 1353 tons of NO_x, 475 tons of TSPs and 133 tons of SO₂ in year 1993.

The latest estimation for the emission loads was available in Adhikari (1998). This study inferred a slightly different result than that of Shrestha and Malla. Transport sector contributed about 31 thousand of pollutants in 1996 from the number of then operating vehicles in the Kathmandu Valley. Carbon monoxide (CO) was the major pollutants and constituted about 60 per cent on the total vehicular emissions. There was about 19 thousand tons of CO emitted from the transport sector in the Valley Other major pollutants were HCs and NOx. Their contributions on the total emissions were 30 per cent and 6 per cent respectively. Among the total vehicle registered, there was about 20 per cent diesel vehicle operating in the Valley. Diesel vehicles contributed about 10 per cent of the total vehicular emissions in the Valley. Gasoline vehicles contributed the remaining 90 per cent pollutants. Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons were the major pollutants released from the gasoline vehicles, where CO was about 68 per cent and HCs about 30 per cent on the total emissions from the gasoline vehicles. There were small traces of other pollutants, such as NO_x, TSPs, SO₂ and Pb emitted by the gasoline vehicles.

Carbon monoxide and HCs constituted 61 per cent and 30 per cent of the total pollutants emission from the transport sector respectively. Total suspended particulate matters (TSPs) constituted about two per cent of the total pollutants emission from the transport sector. Among the vehicle type, motorcycle were the major contributors of HCs, which, alone, contributed more than 80 per cent of HCs. Two wheelers, cars and taxis were the main source of CO emission. Two wheelers contributed 39 per cent on the total TSPs emissions. Table 4.0 shows the details of pollutants emission from the transport sector.

Table 4.0 Vehicle Emissions in the Kathmandu Valley in 1996 (ton)
 

Fuel	Vehicle	TSPs	CO	HCs	NOx	SO2	Pb	Total
Diesel	Truck	34	137	42	148	20		381
	Bus	83	332	102	360	48		926
	Minibus	61	91	51	526	16		745
	Jeep/car	34	118	50	54	15		271
	Tractor	11	27	15	17	5		75
	3-wheeler	59	88	49	509	15		721
	Total	282	794	310	1,614	119		3,118
Gasoline	Taxi	10	3,107	416	135	7	1	3,675
	Car	15	4,601	616	200	10	1	5,444
	3-wheeler	8	890	556	8	2	1	1,465
	2- wheeler	203	9,732	7,704	28	8	1	17,677
	Total	236	18,330	9,292	372	26	4	28,260
Total		518	19,124	9,602	1,986	145	4	31,378

Source: Adhikari, 1998.
 

2. Industry Sector

 

 

Industrial pollution survey (IUCN, 1991) revealed that majorities (80 %)of the significant source of industrial pollution were clustered within the three zones in the country: (i) Bagmati Zone (ii) Narayani Zone (iii) Kosi Zone. Balaju Industrial District (BID), which is situated in the Bagmati Zone, was identified as a pollution hot spot due to it high concentration of polluting industries. Smoke from boiler and diesel plant operation was the main source of air pollution in industrial sector (IUCN, 1992). Dust was emitted from various industrial processes such as milling, etc. Overall, the level of air pollution did not appear to be significantly high at the Balaju Industrial District.

Operation of brick kilns has been considered as a major source of air pollution in the Kathmandu Valley. Brick manufacturing by Bull’s Trench kilns was potentially a significant source of atmospheric emission (Sharma et al., 1995). An estimation indicated that annual emission from a brick factory was at as large as 30 ton of carbon, 80 ton of particulate, 7 ton of NOx and 5 ton of SOx (Bhattaria, 1993). A large number of brick kilns were, thus, the main contributor of air pollutants specially the suspended particles. Brick industries used about 70% of the Valley’s coal supply. Combustion of fuelwood, coal, saw dust, and oil cakes used in firing process released SOx, NOx, HC, CO in the form of smoke, fumes, soot and ash. A single local brick kiln used about 30 ton of coal and 165 tone of fuelwood, and other supplementary energy inputs in one round of firing. Scrap tyre was also used to fire bricks. Sulfur content of rubber in scrape tyre emits very corrosive acid fumes, which condense in and attack flues and chimneys as well as bricks (Devkota, 1993 quoted in ENPHO, 1993). Besides brick and other industries, Himal Cement Factory was another major contributor of air pollutants, specially the dust particles

Emission load from the industrial sector was also estimated in Shrestha and Malla (1996). Industry sector emitted a total of 12,263 ton of pollutants in year 1993 in the Kathmandu Valley. Brick industries contributed about 64 per cent of the total pollutants and 66 per cent on total TSP emissions from the industrial sector in the valley. Table 4.1 shows the emission load from industrial sector in the Kathmandu Valley in year 1993 (as quoted in KEC, MOPE, 1999).

Table 4.1 Emission Load from Industrial Sector in 1993(ton)
 

Source	TSPs	CO	HCs	NOx	SO2	Total
Brick	2,346	3,498	649	426	938	7,857
Cement	615	769	171	127	308	1,990
Other	613	953	672	75	103	2,416
Total	3,574	5,220	1,492	628	1,349	12,263

Source: Shrestha and Malla, 1996
 

3. Domestic Sector


Kitchen smoke is another major air pollutant quite common to both rural and urban areas. In rural areas-both in the Terai and the Hills, fuelwood, twigs, leaf litter, and cow-dung mixed with forage and dried in the from of cakes are the common fuels. Used of coals and kerosene are common in relatively well to do families in rural areas. In cities, addition to these fuels, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is also being extensively used. Most of the traditional stove are designed in such a manner that a small portion of heat is actually used with the rest goes waste. A large amount of smoke produced inside the kitchen fills the room causing in door air pollution. Estimation of emission load from the use of fuels in domestic sector is not readily available for the country; however, a few research works were conducted in Kathmandu Valley. Shrestha and Malla (1993) estimated emission of air pollutants from energy used in domestic sector in the Kathmandu Valley. It indicated that about 14 thousand ton of pollutants were released into the atmosphere from the domestic sector. Kerosene and LPG were the major fuels used in urban areas while, kerosene and firewood comprised the major share of the fuels used in rural areas. Firewood as a major household fuel contributed over 50 per cent of the total emission load from the domestic sector in the Valley. Likewise, CO emission constituted about 85 per cent of the total emission load (as quoted in KEC, MOPE, 1999).

The analysis from ENPHO (1993) study of the first part indicates only TSP and PM₁₀ value exceeds the WHO guidelines. This study gives the state of ambient air quality of the area. Highest concentration of TSP and PM10 was found in Chabahil, this area has comparatively dusty roads. This shows the potential adverse impact of particulates.

In the second part, samples were collected from roadside at respirable height during the peak traffic hour of the day. All the pollutants found were in higher concentration than the first part. This implies the pollutants are greater concentration in the daytime and nearby where they are released i.e. roads. The pollutants are slowly dispersed in the night and to the farther places diluting the effect off the road and the ambient air. This draw the conclusion that pollutants are mainly due to vehicles and people are more exposed to pollution when they are in the vicinity of roads in the daytime. The main draw back of this study is completely different sites are taken in both the parts making it not comparable.

KVVECP (1993) study measured TSP, PM₁₀, SO₂ and NO₂ from September to December 1993. In this study 14 location in different sites viz. industrial, residential, traffic and control were measured for 4 to 22 days in each site. This was done to identify the emission source strength of pollutants and to know the exact concentration of air pollutants available in the atmosphere. Except for the control site concentration of TSP, PM₁₀ at all the localities either exceeds or approaching the WHO guideline value. Although, a very simple relation can be developed from this limited finding, that the susceptibility of air pollutants is higher around commercial areas. The higher incidence of pollutants around commercial areas also justifies this argument that the vehicles are one of the pollution source of the valley. But, the dispersion mechanism has not been considered.

DHM has been continuously monitoring TSP at the height of 15m above the ground. This result gives a clear picture of rise in the TSP level in the dry season. With the approach of rainy season the level of TSP gradually reduces. As Kathmandu is a valley, it is more vulnerable in the winter season due to the temperature inversion.

NESS under ADB TA 2847-NEP study determined the level of pollutants in the ambient air and the conditions of prevailing meteorology, which indicates whether the pollutants are going to be diluted or concentrated at a particular time and region. A definite upward trend is seen in both TSP and PM₁₀ concentration during all cycles of the measurement. There is, however declining tendency of the gaseous pollutants from winter (December) towards summer (April) which is in contrast to TSP and PM₁₀ indicating that the sources of gaseous pollutants and dust may not be essentially related to each other.

Taking into account of the valley specific meteorological conditions, generally south-easternly wind prevails in the morning after the calm period in the early morning and the nighttime. The speed reaches up to 2m/sec, which increases up to 5-7m/sec during March through May. The wind direction then changes through south, S-W and westerly after noon and afterwards, when the speed also get increased to approximately 5m/sec and at about 2 PM, may reach even up to 15m/sec during March to May. The northerly wind from beyond the Himalaya is virtually blocked by the high mountains in the north of the valley (NESS, ADB TA 2847/MOPE, 1999).

The above described diurnal variation of wind speed and direction with little changes from day to day can be taken as valley specific meteorological conditions. Thus, during winter and non-monsoon time the valley sky generally remains clear for most of day and night which permits significant solar heating during daytime and rapid cooling during nighttime, thus bringing about a significantly large diurnal temperature variation difference of about 150⁰c.

During the night, cold and dense air settles down to the valley floor bringing with it the dust and gaseous pollutants contained in the air. The morning sun destabilizes the surface air and the warm air along with the pollutants vents up initiating a strong conventional air current, which act efficiently to disperse the pollutants up in to the sky. Such meteorological conditions generally prevail during dry summer time when the wind speed is sufficiently high. In winter time, the morning destabilizing effect of the ground level air normally remains weak and at times, may act in a reverse way bringing about temperature inversion and if this phenomenon prevails for longer time pollutants in the ground level atmosphere may suddenly rise due to their continuing accumulation and damage to the environment including the human health may be extensive (NESS, ADB TA 2847/MOPE, 1999).

NESS has pointed out the cause of particulate emission due to dusty condition of the road, haphazard solid waste disposal practices, orientation of sampling sites and the change of various climatic conditions.

Under the same project Soil Test also conducted monitoring in five sites. Monitoring sites were fixed; assuming the period of monitoring wind direction is from west to east so that the pollutants would be swept to Bhaktapur and Thimi from the Kathmandu city. This came to be true as Bhaktapur and Thimi though there is very little vehicular traffic PM_10, TSP was found higher than WHO guideline value. Analysis of PM₁₀ found out that Hydrocarbon was the main component in PM₁₀. This justifies that dust particles settles easily but hydrocarbon does not settle unless there is heavy rain to wash it down (Table 4.2). Thus, the high hydrocarbon could be the result of the meteorological condition where the valley had experienced unusual long dry period of over seven month during the time of measurement.

Table 4.2 Analysis of PM₁₀
 

Location	m g/m3, March 1999
	Total PM10	PM10 carbon	PM10 dust
Thimi	190.50	123.88	66.59
Bhaktapur	170.81	117.62	53.19
Battisputali	169.79	118.12	51.67
Kalimati	161.33	128.12	33.21
Balaju	181.60	153.92	27.84

Source: Soil test, 1999

Research on air pollution has not been carried out systematically in Nepal due to the a lacking of an appropriate air quality management system. Observations made on most of the studies are not inter-comparable. Analysis of historical data on ambient air pollution levels, however, warrants an urgent need for ambient air quality monitoring program to define the actual status of the problem.
 

2. NATIONAL AIR QUALTY CRITERIA AND STANDARDS

• Types of pollutants for standard setting
• Best criteria for establishing standard
• Specifying the types and range of standards

• Kathmandu valley is more residential, Biratnagar more industrial and Pokhara more sensitive in terms of tourism.
• Winter season is highly vulnerable in Kathmandu.
• Atmospheric washout and natural cleansing is more in Pokhara, moderate in Biratnagar and less in Kathmandu.
• Currently, SPM is a major problem in Kathmandu, other parameters are normally below WHO guideline values.
• In case of Nepal, standards should be less stringent initially with a provision for yearly review and periodic revision towards more stringent side.
• The country has enough potential for hydroelectricity; hence it would be wise to discourage thermal power plants.
• The industrial development in the country is yet to take place in full shape.
• The economy of the country is poor, as such consideration has to be given to make the societal cost less.
• The institutional capacity of all responsible stakeholders in the country in environment management is not adequate yet.

Table 4.3 Proposed Standard Values
 

Parameters	Avg. time	Proposed Standard Values			Monitoring method
		Pokhara	Kathmandu	Biratnagar
SPM ug/m3	24hr	100	150	200	HVS or beta-attenuation method
	8hr	125	175	225
CO mg/m3	8hr	5	10	10	Non-dispersive IR analyser (NDIR)
	1hr	20	30	30
NO2 ug/m3	24hr	100	120	120	Colorimetric method using NaOH
	8hr	200	250	250
	1hr	250	300	300
SO2 ug/m3	24hr	100	125	150	UV-fluorescent method or acidimetric method
	8hr	150	175	200
	1hr	200	250	300
Pb ug/m3	1 month	1.0	1.0	1.0	AAS method

Source: KEC/MOPE, 1999.
 

The above is the recently proposed national standard. These standards still have to be incorporated into Environmental Protection Guidelines as authorized by the Act. Then the compliance of these standards would be easier. Penalty measures should also be stated clearly in case of violation from the related party or parties.

1. IMPACTS OF AIR POLLUTION

 

 

The harmful effects of atmospheric pollution are widespread and varied. There is no doubt whatever that atmospheric pollution is in the concentrations in which it has been allowed to occur, particularly in urban areas, caused damage to property and made living conditions generally less pleasant. Concentration sometimes occurred which could be held directly responsible for immediate serious damage to plants animals. Increased road traffic has enhanced NO_x concentrations increasing the incidence of photochemical smogs, depletion of ozone layer and disruption of stability of the global climate due to the increase of CO₂.
 

1. Health

 

 

Adverse effects of air pollutants on human health can be acute or chronic. Acute effects manifest themselves immediately upon short-term exposure to high concentration of air pollutants whereas chronic effects become evident only after continuos exposure to low levels of pollutants.

Pollution can enter the body through a number of ways. They can cause skin and eye irritation; particulate matter may be swallowed as a result of respiratory cleansing action. However, the primary mode of transfer of pollutants to the human body is through the respiratory system.

Leaders conducted a survey of air pollution among children in Kathmandu based on the secondary data collected from Kanti Children Hospital, the only public hospital of children in Kathmandu. Cases like pneumonia, URTI, ARI, Asthma, Bronchitis, Chest infection, LRTI, Koch disease, wheezing cough and chest and Post measles pneumonia was considered for analysis. Both indoor and outdoor patients for the year 1996/97 were used for the analysis.

From the preliminary screening of medical records from the hospital it had been found that urban residents exceeded the number of respiratory related cases in the hospital compared to that from the rural areas from Kathmandu. This may be due to the deteriorating air quality in the urban centers. This is only assumption based; further detail study has to be conducted for the analysis.

According to the morbidity health status published by DoHS/HMGN (1997), respiratory came among the top five disease accounting for eight percent of population reporting the case of acute respiratory infection (ARI). Figure 4.0 shows the reported ARI incidence in 1996/97. Respiratory disease has been largely dependent on the prolong exposure of smoke and dust (CBS, 1996). ARI continued to be the leading to be the leading cause to death among young children, accounting for more than 30 percent death in children under five years of age (Niruala, 1998).

Pandey and Basnet (1987) have found a strong co-relation between the prevalence of chronic bronchitis and indoor smoke pollution in Nepal. It was further reported that 31 percent of the bronchitis cases were due to indoor smoke pollution in Jumla district, 17 percent in Sundarijal and Bhadrabas of the Kathmandu district, 13 percent in Parasauni of the Bara district, and 11 percent in urban Kathmandu. Reid et al. (1986) indicated that twice as many traditional cookstove owners than improved cookstove owners complained the problems of eye irritation and coughing.

URBAIR has estimated health impacts assessing using dose-response relations derived in US and air quality model developed for Kathmandu Valley. Key data are excess mortality totaling 85 cases, and the number of respiratory symptom days at about 1.5 million. Table 4.4 combines dose-response relationship with frequency distribution of PM₁₀ exposure to derive total numbers of people impacted by various types of pollution.

An analysis of the marginal impacts of emission increase and reduction by source categories showed that health impacts are mostly affected by developments in the transport sector, while domestic sources and risk manufacturing rank second in this respect.

Table 4.4. Impacts on mortality and health in Kathmandu Valley
 

Types of health impact	Number of cases
Excess mortality		84
Chronic bronchitis		506
Restricted activity days		475,298
Emergency room visits		1,945
Bronchitis in children		4847
Asthma		18,863
Respiratory symptoms days		1,512,689
Respiratory hospital admissions		99

Source: URBAIR 1996
 


 

2. Vegetation


ENPHO 1999 reported that Himal Cement has caused a negative impact on vegetation in the surrounding area. Some observations made were foliar injury; low yield of crops due to photosynthetic disturbance as the dust deposition on leaves; hard soil due to calcium deposition which affects germination of seeds; straw of rice, wheat, barley is not palatable to the animals because of the cement dust. Among the plants Pinus roxburghii is the most affected one due to resiniferous nature. Problems like low visibility and poor sunlight in winter is also associated with dust from Himal Cement.
 

3. Others


Air pollution in Kathmandu is also causing damage to many historical buildings that represent the cultural heritage of Kathmandu valley. Acid formed as a result of various sulphurous and nitrous oxides reacting with water can damage fine wood carving, marble and metallic exteriors common to many historical buildings in Kathmandu. The damage to cultural heritage not only deprives the residents of a proud past, it also can negatively impact on tourist trade, an important contributor to Valley’s economy (Adhikari 1998).

Atmospheric visibility data from Kathmandu airport analyzed 1970 onward shows that there has been a very substantial decrease in the visibility in the valley since 1980. The number of days with good visibility (>8000m) around noon has decreased in the winter months from more than 25 days per month in 1970 to 5 days per month in 1992/93.
 

2. FUTURE TRENDS IN EMITTING SOURCES AND EMISSION

Table 4.5 Population Projection
 

Year	Total Nepal	Kathmandu	Latipur	Bhaktapur
1991	18491097
1996	20831644	804039	292196	193395
2001	23453019	946569	331212	216328
2006	26284018	1097855	373061	241175
2011	29234040	1250871	416352	267220
2016	32202975	1397368	459527	293688

Source: MoPE
 

Urbanization offers both an opportunity and challenges for national development. With such developmental pace, transport becomes an important requirement. However these services demand more intense use of energy and resources that may procreate conflict between man and nature. Adhikari (1997) has projected the number of future vehicles based on the present economy scenario and development trends.

The trend for the future vehicle growth is shown in table 4.6. The vehicles will grow at the rate of 7.3 percent per year in future. Motorcycle will grow at the highest rate (7.8 percent per year) followed by cars (7.0 percent per year). Other vehicles are expected to increase at a bit slower rate as were experienced in the past. Government imposed ban on further registration of 3-wheeler in the valley. It is practical to assume that most of the passengers who would be getting the service of 3-wheeler, will shift to minibus, hence the 3-wheelers number goes decreasing. Thus, there will be more than 500 thousands vehicles registered by 2020 in the valley, of which 2-wheeler comprise about 67 percent of the total vehicles (Adhikari, 1997).

Table 4.6 Present and Forecasted Number of Vehicles in Kathmandu Valley
 

Vehicles	1996	2000	2005	2010	2015	2020
Bus	1283	1594	2100	2788	3779	5270
Minibus	1558	1634(1888)	1751(2343)	1904(2855)	2107(3450)	2385(4156)
Truck	4620	5647	7278	9409	12203	15881
Tractor	1674	2065	2724	3595	4748	6273
Car/Jeep	28131	37007	52148	73410	103420	145768
3wheeler	3866	4761(3240)	6160(2608)	7805(2099)	9747(1689)	11983(1359)
2wheeler	61594	83427	121557	176298	254921	367376
Total	102726	136135	193718	275209	390925	554936
Total		(134868)	(190758)	(270454)	(384210)	(546083)

Source: Adhikari, 1997.

Table 4.7 Future Fuel Demand of Transportation Sector
 

Fuel/ year	1996	2000	2005	2010	2015	2020
Diesel	41191	29641	30569	31705	33336	35715
Gasoline	25504	26065	29343	33213	38012	44076

Source: Adhikari, 1997.
 

Transport sector emitted about 125 thousands tons of Co₂ equivalent GHG emission in the valley in 1996. Burning diesel oil contributes about 63 percent GHG emissions of transport sector in the valley. Table 4.9 Illustrates future GHG emission from transport sector.

Table 4.8 Vehicle Emission for the Future (tons)
 

Year	TSP	CO	HC	NOx	SO2	Pb
1996	518	19120	9602	1986	145	-
2000	539	20898	10284	1998	151	5
2005	571	23507	11247	2044	161	5
2010	609	26561	12314	2125	174	6
2015	657	30186	13513	2257	192	7
2020	717	34496	14852	2456	215	8

Source: Adhikari, 1997.
 

Table 4.9 Future GHG Emission from Transport Sector (tons)
 

Year	CO2	CH4	N2O	CO2 equivalent
2000	127225	35.1	7.9	131569
2005	135597	39.3	8.5	140368
2010	145592	44.06	9.3	150879
2015	158585	50.14	10.2	164498
2020	175872	57.87	11.37	182588

Source: Adhikari, 1996.

Shrestha and Malla (1996) estimated total emissions in 2013 to be about five times than those of 1993. Estimated values of sectoral emission in 2013 are shown in table 4.10. More than two thirds of the increase will be contributed by the transportation sector, about one sixth by the industrial sector and about 10% by the household and commercial sectors.

Table 4.10 Sectoral Emission for Kathmandu Valley in 2013 (tons)
 

Sector	TSP	CO	HCs	NOx	SO2	Pb	Total
Transport	3,441 (477)	141,981 (23,693)	90,238 (11024)	6,015 (1354)	693 (130)	32 -	242,400 (36,678)
Household	4,809 (2,383)	19,512 (9,856)	2549 (1,277)	443 (213)	963 (505)	- -	28,275 (14,234)
Industrial	11,113 (3,575)	16,542 (5,221)	4,488 (1,493)	1,943 (628)	4,143 (1,349)	- -	38,229 (12,266)
Commercial	54 (25)	535 (233)	25 (11)	12 (7)	7 (5)	- -	634 (281)
Total	19,417 (6460)	178,570 (39003)	97,300 (13805)	8,413 (2202)	5,806 (1989)	32 (-)	309,538 (63459)

Source: Shrestha and Malla, 1996