AIR POLLUTION MONITORING

Monitoring addresses the impact of existing and new sources of air pollution upon air quality. The results from this can be used to provide a basis for developing goals and objectives for the air resources management plan and permitting new source emission in areas under consideration. For Nepal the problem lies still in primitive stage. Till now there is no monitoring stations for regular measurement of air quality status. In contrast to the data availability in other neighboring as well as developed countries, the comprehensive and systematic data on air quality is virtually absent in Nepal. This is the real bottleneck to understand the actual degree of pollution over time and space (SOE Nepal, 1998). Even monitoring in the visibly polluted areas of Kathmandu valley is almost negligible. However, occasional studies done by various agencies as well as individual researchers can provide some indicative pictures; regarding major type of pollution, extent of concentration and pollution prone hot spot areas (A Comp. on Env. Stat. of Nepal, 1998). But the shortness of measurement periods at each site limits the accuracy of measurement.

The major observation in air quality was only made from 1992. Prior to this attempts were related to derive through indirect measures.

In 1981, Bhattarai and Shrestha studied on dust pollution in Kathmandu. Dust samples were collected from 18 different spots. The result showed that lead content was far in excess of the reasonably acceptance level of 0.6 ppm. It was found between 544 ppm (Maitighar) to 153 ppm (Tripureswor).

In 1987, MHAPP carried out a study to determine particulate loading in Kathmandu in the month of September. The study found the dust concentration six to eleven times higher than the US standard. The dust concentration was measured at three spots in the core area of Kathmandu.

Davidson and Pandey (1986) recorded the level of SO2, NOX and Pb in Kathmandu household, which is comparable to those in urban areas of industrialized countries.

The study carried out through passive techniques by CEDA in 1990 determines the particulate matters higher than WHO guidelines along the roadside of Pokhara, Biratnagar and Kathmandu.

Measurements of particles and their content of mycoflora in Kathmandu city were performed in June, October and November 1992 (Sharma et al). Sixteen samples were collected from different location near roadside using millipore pumps and filters (6-8hr of sampling). The sampling method indicates that the measurement is related to measurements of Total Suspended Particles (TSP), as measured with a high volume sampler. The particle concentration was within the range 197-524 m g/m3.

Various species of fungi were isolated from the samples described above. The fungi may be agents of different diseases and some of them are allergens. The source of this mycoflora in the particles is resuspended dust on the road.

Devkota (1992) conducted an inventory study on energy utilization and air pollution in Kathmandu valley. Different offices, departments and ministries were the secondary data sources. Surveying has generated primary data. The survey has been performed mainly in vehicle volume during peak and normal hour in different localities of the valley, the current number of local transportation service for public, energy use by traditional porters and rural household energy transaction. The investigation covered emissions from most of the main air pollution sources in the valley: road vehicles, brick and industries, households and aircraft. Devkota attempted to estimate emissions of benzene, PAH from road traffic apart from other compounds such as TSP, CO, SO2, NOX, VOC and CO2.His estimation showed peak hour exhaust emission as 63% CO, 13% VOC, 13% total hydrocarbon, 8% of NOX. 0.75% of SOX, 2.2% TSP and 0.27% of benzene. Daily emission of different types of PAH from transportation services is 6.6 g. The pollution load in ambient air of Kathmandu valley has been estimated to about 550 tons of CO, 14 tons of NOX and 3.5 tons of SOX.

ENPHO (1993) conducted a grab monitoring of air pollutant viz. TSP, PM10, SO2, NOX, CO and Pb in Kathmandu. The measurements were carried out in two phases. In November 1992, the samples from nine stations (24hr average) were collected from different height and distances from the roads, to get the general picture of the air quality of the area. In February 1993, the samples from eleven stations (9hr average) were collected from the height of 1.5m, to get the picture of roadside exposure. Monitoring sites are shown in figure 2.0 and described in table 2.0. The methods are given in table 2.1.

Table 2.0 Description of ENPHO measurement sites
 
Sampling station Height (m) Distance from closest road Direction from the popular junction Area type Latitude Longitude
Chabahil
3
5
 N-E Res./Mkt 850 21' 00" 270 43' 01''
Indrachowk
12
5
 N-W Res/ Mkt 850 18' 43" 270 42' 21''
Maharajgunj Ring road
5
15
 S-E Res. 850 20' 13" 270 44' 13''
Thapathali
3
5
 N-W Res/Mkt 850 19' 12" 270 41' 24''
Putalisadak
6
8
 South Res/ Com 850 19' 33" 270 42' 07''
Kalimati
10
5
 North Res/Com 850 18' 00" 270 41' 52''
Royal Palace
5
8
 S-W Com. 850 19' 19" 270 42' 57''
Balaju
6
15
 N-W Res/Com 850 18' 21" 270 43' 51''
Bir Hospital
3
5
 N-W Res/Com 850 18' 57" 270 42' 18''
Kuleswor
0.75
2
 West Res/Com 850 17' 52" 270 41'38''
Thamel
0.75
0
 East Res/Com 850 18' 54" 270 42' 54''
Ason
0.75
0
 S-W Res/Com 850 18' 54" 270 42' 25''
Jamal
0.75
0
 North Res/Com 850 19' 01" 270 42' 32''
Kasthamandap
0.75
2
 S-E Res/Mkt 850 18' 25" 270 42' 14''
Kalanki
0.75
2
 N-W Res/Com 850 17' 02" 270 41' 34''
Singh durbar
0.75
2
 S-W Office complex 850 19' 37" 270 41' 56''
Dillibazar
0.75
2
 North Res/Com 850 19' 12" 270 42' 21''
Swayambhu
0.75
2
 S-W Res/Com 850 18' 34" 270 42' 54''
Ratna park
0.75
2
 N-W Com. 850 19' 01" 270 42' 21''
Tripureswor
0.75
2
 S-E Res/Com 850 19' 01" 270 41' 38''

Source: ENPHO 1993. Mkt: market; Com.: commercial; Res.: residential
 

The result indicates that maximum TSP level in phase 1 and 2 are 555 µg/m3 (Chahabil) and 2258 µg/m3 (Kuleswor)respectively. Similarly Lead measurement of 24hr and 9hr average showed maximum of 0.53 µg/m3 in Kalimati and 1.2 µg/m3 in Thamel respectively. The SO2, NO2 and CO was found within the WHO guidelines.

The sites selected by ENPHO were chiefly selected with a view to see the impact of vehicular pollution. The measurements, covering the number of sites in Kathmandu city and the road side atmosphere can be used to give a rough estimate of a long term average TSP and PM10 concentration which might represent a typical exposure value for the population in central Kathmandu city, based on the following assumptions:

Consider the 24hr average roadside concentration is 50 percent of the 9hr average; i.e. 700 µg/m3 (TSP) and 150 µg/m3 PM10.

Consider that average person spends 25 percent of the time in road.

Consider the summer season average is 50 percent of the winter season average.

From this result a person living in central Kathmandu spending 25 percent of the time in roadside gives an average of 300ug/m3 TSP and 75ug/m3 PM10.

Table 2.1 Monitoring Methods, ENPHO and KVVECP
 
Sampling: Envirotech APM 451 Respirable Dust Sampler (India made) for TSP, PM10, SO2, NOx. Flow rate: 0.8-1.2 m3/min.(TSP,PM10); SO2, NOx: 1l/min. The samples were partly 24hr. and partly 8hr. during peak daytime traffic.
Analysis:
SO2 Pararosaniline method
NO2 Jacobs-Hochheiser Arsenite, Modified method
TSP Gravimetric analysis, Whatman GF/A filter (PM10) and ceramic thimble (non respirable fractions)
CO Roadside spot measurements with Kitegava Precision Gas Detector, Model APS. Gas detector tubes, 5-50 ppm.
Heavy metals (Cr,Fe,Pb) AAS analysis (Perkin Elmer-2380) of the glass fibre filters.

Source: URBAIR 1996

In 1993 a study was executed as a part of the Kathmandu Valley Vehicular Exhaust Control Program (KVVECP). During the study TSP, PM10, NOx, SOx, CO, and Pb were measured at number of places. Results have been reported for the period September-December, 1993 (Devkota, 1993).

The monitored sites are shown in figure 2.1 and described in table 2.2. The methods are shown in table 2.1. As the measurement period differ from site to site, the traffic sites had higher TSP concentration than other sites exceptional being Himal Cement (430ug/m3
average). But, Thimi with comparatively low traffic has a very high TSP concentration due to surrounding sources like brick kiln and the wind direction.


 
 
 

PM10 level in the traffic and residential sites had higher values than industrial sites. Here also Himal Cement showed the 24hr average value of 166 m g/m3. Measurements of CO, SO2 and NO2 were found within the WHO guideline.
 

Table 2.2 Description of KVVECP Monitoring Stations
 
Locations Category Latitude Longitude Distance from main road Height (m)
Singha durbar Heavy traffic/Commercial  850 19' 37" 270 41' 56''
2
3
GPO building Heavy traffic/Commercial  850 18' 54" 270 42' 00''
3
3
Ratna Park Medium traffic 850 19' 01" 270 42' 21''
4
3
Lainchaur Medium traffic/Commercial  850 18' 54" 270 41' 08''
2
2.5
Kalimati  Medium traffic 850 18' 00" 270 41' 52''
3
3
Thimi Low traffic 850 23' 24" 270 40' 40''
2
2.5
Maharajgunj Residential 850 20' 13" 270 44' 13''
30
3
Naya Baneswor Residential 850 20' 09" 270 41' 20''
20
7
Jaya Bageswori Residential 850 20' 49" 270 42' 50''
15
8
Balaju Industrial 850 18' 21" 270 43' 51''
15
4
Bhaktapur Industrial 850 25' 40" 270 40' 30''
50
3
PID Industrial 850 19' 26" 270 39' 46''
5
5
Himal Cement factory surrounding Industrial 850 17' 34" 270 39' 54''
100
10
Kirtipur TU Regional background 850 17' 06" 270 40' 48''
50
3

Source: KVVECP, 1993

Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM) is the only regular monitoring station for TSP in the country. For the convenience sampling point was selected on the rooftop (15m above the ground) of the same building at Babarmahal. Since 1994 TSP measurement was recorded somewhat on the daily basis till June 1997. In 1998 measurements were carried out only till the month of February as the equipment was out of order further monitoring was stopped. DHM has again started its regular measurement of TSP since 1999.

 

TSP concentration shows the same trend for all the years. In rainy season the concentration is lower, with the gradual increment as the season becomes dry with the highest being around March-May. Figure 2.2 shows the yearly TSP concentration.

Nepal Environment and Scientific Services P. Ltd. (NESS) conducted a rapid survey on the respirable air particulates, PM10 in Kathmandu municipality in the month of October/November, 1993.The survey operation was carried out in two phases. During the first phase of the operation , monitoring was done in places of identified high traffic and nearby low traffic points by using High Volume Air Sampler (HVS-500-5 No.0280778, Sibata Co., Japan) for 20 minutes and Laser Dust Monitor (‘Dustmate’ LD-1, Sibata Co., Japan) for an hour. In high traffic areas, measurements was done during peak traffic hours whereas in the low traffic areas monitoring was done after peak traffic hours both in the morning and evening. Altogether, nine points were monitored.

In the second phase, only Laser Dust Monitor was employed for 20 minutes during the traffic hours of the day. Sixty observations throughout the Kathmandu municipality were made.

Similarly, lead concentration in the street dust and in the PM10 of the Kathmandu municipality were analyzed during September, October and November of the same year. Samples of street dust from surface area of 1m2 from different traffic centers of Kathmandu were collected in the month September and October. In September samples were collected from ten points. While in October, sampling was extended to cover more areas, including sample points of September.

Samples of September were sieved through 2 mm mesh and 0.2 mesh and both the fractions were analyzed, whereas October samples was analyzed for 2mm mesh. Lead concentration in these samples was determined after digesting the sample in Aqua regia by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer.

Table 2.3 Description of NESS measurement sites
 
S.No. Location Distance from main road(m) Surroundings Latitude Longitude
1 Nagarjun 100 Forest 850 17' 42" 270 44' 45''
2. BID 250 Industry 850 18' 21" 270 43' 51''
3. Kalimati Adjacent to road Heavy traffic 850 18' 54" 270 42' 00''
4. GPO building Adjacent to road Main traffic 850 18' 00" 270 41' 52''
5. Mitra Park 50 Eastern to city core 850 20' 49" 270 42' 50''
6. Thapathali (Mat. Hospital) 150 Moderate traffic 850 19' 15" 270 41' 20''
7. Saibhu ~ 2 East to Himal Cement 850 17' 56" 270 39' 14''
8. Chovar ~ 2 West to Himal Cement 850 17' 34" 270 39' 54''
9. Lagankhel 100 Residential 850 19' 30" 270 40' 01''
10. Shiddhipur 200 Agricultural field, west brick kiln 850 21' 25" 270 38' 24''
11. Sanga 40 Residential 850 28' 48" 270 38' 31''

PM10 dust sample collected by HVS were digested in nitric acid and lead concentration was analyzed by Atomic absorption spectrometer. Results show that lead concentration in the municipal streets of Kathmandu is many folds higher than the background value found on normal soil. Street dust in the center of the city with heavy traffic volume higher concentration of lead was found than those in outskirts. The finer dust contains higher lead concentration indicating that the lead particulates are released as fine particulates from the vehicular exhaust.

Other study carried out by NESS was ADB TA 2847-NEP Project. Eleven sites were selected from Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur for monitoring TSP, PM10, SO2, NO2, CO and Pb. The measurement sites are shown in figure 2.1. The 24hr monitoring was carried out for each site twice in the month of December, January, February, March and once in the month of April, 1998/99. The measurement sites and methods used are shown in table 2.3 and 2.4 respectively.

Table 2.4 Monitoring method for ADB TA NO: 2847/NEP study
 
Equipment Low Volume Air Sampler (LVAS) AN-200 Japan, for TSP, PM10, Pb, Ca, SiO2. Flow rate: 28.3 l/min for 24 hr.
Test method for Pb, Ca, SiO2 TSP collected is treated with nitric acid (1:3). Pb and Ca are determined in the acid extract by AAS. The acid insoluble is reported SiO2 gravimetrically.
Equipment SO2, NO2 Envirotech India APM 820. Flow rate: 0.3 l/min for 24 hr.
Analysis SO2 West-Gacke method. Absorbed in tetrachloromercurate(TCM) solution and the color producing reagent is pararosalinine.
Analysis NO2 Griess-saltzman reaction. NO2 is absorbed in an azo-dye forming reagent.
CO Gastec fitted with CO gas detector tube (Japan)

Under the same project ADBTA 2847-NEP Soil test monitored TSP, PM10, NO2 at five spots. The measurement sites are shown in figure 2.1. HVS was run for 24 hours at the rate of 0.8-0.9 m3/min.for the measurement of TSP, PM10. The measurement methods are shown in table 2.5 and description of measurement sites is shown in table 2.6.

Table 2.5 Measurement Methods Soil Test
 
Equipment Respirable HVS 0.9 to 1.4 m3/min for TSP, PM10. 
Flowrate: 0.5- 11 min for gases
Methods 

SPM, PM10

 Gravimetric 
SOx

NOx

Carbon particles

 Pararosaniline 

Sulphanilamide 

Chemical, Gravimetric
Source: Soil Test, 1999


 
 

Table 2.6 Description of Soil Test Measurement Sites
 
S. No. Location  Height (m) Surrounding Longitude Latitude
1 Thimi 12 Agricultural 850 23' 24" 270 40' 40''
2 Bhaktapur 12 Residential 850 25' 40" 270 40' 30''
3 Kalimati 12 Residential/commercial 850 18' 00" 270 41' 52''
4 Battisputali <3 Residential/commercial 850 20' 31" 270 42' 14''
5 Balaju <3 Industrial 850 18' 21" 270 43' 51''

The objective of Urban Air Quality Management Strategy (URBAIR) was to develop Air Quality Management Strategies (AQMS) and action plan for improving air quality in the Asian cities. The AQMS is based on a cost-benefit analysis of proposed action and measures for air pollution abatement. The study emphasizes the damage done to the health of those who are exposed to air pollution. Population exposure is based on measured and calculated concentration of air pollutants, through emission inventory and dispersion modeling.

Leaders Nepal conducted monitoring of PM10 at 13 different places in Kathmandu valley. The sampling sites were selected on the basis of geographical variation, the sites ranged from the core to the periphery of Kathmandu including Patan and adjoining point to Bhaktapur. Monitoring was carried out once in the month from September to January. Grab sampling for 10 minutes using LDM (LD-1) was done for collecting samples. NOx was also monitored in the same spots. Passive diffusion sampler and NOx analyzer was used as per the Saltzmann method. The Amaya-Sugiura sampler modified by Krochmal and Groski in 1991 was utilized for the study. Figure 2.0 shows the measurement sites of Leaders.

Spot monitoring of PM10 in Putalisadak was performed at the height of 50m. (rooftop of Leaders Nepal building) from the ground in the month of June, July (1997). From August, PM10 was measured both at the height of 50m. as well as along the roadside in respirable height. HVS was used to measure at the rooftop and along the roadside LDM was used.

Again in 1999, Leaders Nepal measured the SPM concentration in the above-mentioned 13 spots in Kathmandu. This time, the study was also carried out in Biratnagar Pokhara and Nepalgunj. Figure 2.3 shows the concentration of PM10 and TSP of these locations. Nine spots in Nepalgunj seven spots in Biratnagar and five spots in Pokhara were roughly identified to cover various locations including heavy traffic areas, residential, industrial areas and other places. The locations for Nepalgunj, Biratnagar and Pokhara are shown in figure 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6 respectively. LDM was used for the measurements of SPM.

Besides the above-mentioned work in air pollution, NESS P. Ltd. has currently finished monitoring at 30 spots once in a month from February 1999. Daily one spot is monitored. The locations are as shown in figure 2.1. The parameters monitored are PM10, NO2, SO2, CO. HVS is run for an hour for measuring PM10, while gas detectors are used to measure NO2, SO2, and CO. The measured result of the spot is disseminated through Radio Sagarmatha FM102.4 twice a day.

    1. CURRENT MONITORING NETWORK


      2. As mentioned in the previous section Nepal does not have any permanent monitoring network. The objective varies from one study to other though a number of studies have been conducted in the field of air pollution. The study largely depends on the various donor agencies, as there is no specific national budget sanctioned for air pollution.

      The past studies were confined only to record highest pollution level on high traffic, roadside, industrial state, and residential area of the urban centers of Kathmandu, Pokhara, Biratnagar and Nepalgunj. Another weakness of these studies was the limitation of the data on various air pollutants for specific time period that was not enough to assess the magnitude and extent of air pollution for a whole year period to obtain information on seasonal variation. Thus, a comprehensive annual air quality monitoring work is necessary to evaluate the affect of the environmental and topographical conditions on pollutants behavior. However, the information obtained by various organization can indicate the level of pollutants that are posing threat to the ambient air quality. Among them work undertaken by KVVECP, NESS, Soil Test and DHM are useful for illustrating the trend in air pollution (A Comp. of Env. Stat. of Nepal, 1998)
       
      Monitoring station Parameters monitored Monitoring techniques Organization responsible Mode of dissemination
      KVVECP* TSP, NO2, SO2 Refer table 2.2 HMG/UNDP Report
      DHM TSP   DHM -
      NESS* TSP, NO2, SO2, CO Refer table 2.3 NESS Report
      Soil Test* TSP, PM10, NO2, SO2 Refer table 2.5 Soil test Report

      * The sampling locations are shown in figure 2.1
       

    2. SITING OF MONITORING STATIONS


      3. The previous work done by various agencies have tried to monitor the pollutants from different sites, most of it being concentrated in urban centers. KVVECP has included sites like Thimi, Chovar (Himal Cement), which are sub-urban, centers. Similarly, in ADB TA No. 28847/NEP project (1999) done by NESS has also selected monitoring spots, which are geographically protected natural areas (Nagarjun), sub-urban sites (Saibhu, Chovar, Shiddhipur and Sanga) apart from urban city centers. Under the same project Soil Test P. Ltd. has included sampling locations based on the assumption that during the period of monitoring the main prevailing wind is from west to east so that the pollutants would be swept to Bhaktapur, Thimi area from the city core of Kathmandu.

      The results from these spots though gives an indicative picture of the pollution load, it does not provide the magnitude and extent of pollution for a whole year period.

      Except for indoor air pollution scenario, the ambient air in rural areas is virtually clean and thus monitoring of such spots has not been conducted yet.
       

    3. EXAMPLES OF MONITORING RESULTS


      4. Apart from the high traffic volume areas the sub-urban centers in which brick-kiln and Himal Cement factory is located has shown high level of TSP and PM10. The estimated annual emission of TSP and PM10 is 16,565 and 4712 tons respectively. Similarly, from the vehicles it is 570 tons of TSP. Himal Cement TSP and PM10 annual estimated emission shows the value of 6000 tons and 800 tons respectively this includes the value of both stack and diffuse dust (URBAIR, 1996).
       

    4. DATA AVAILABILITY


      5. So far very little work has been done towards assessment of the ambient air quality. Moreover, the available data are not consistence from one work to another. Generally, the data depends on the individual interest of the researcher or the donor agency. Thus, monitoring varies from site to site, as the measured height, equipment used, monitored spots and conditions are different from each study.

      The data of the monitored spots are usually in the report form, others are either thesis or in papers presented in seminars. The availability of these data is through direct contact with the agencies, which has performed the study or the libraries of the environmental related institutions. Though there is difficulty in locating all the data under one roof, there is no restriction for the data access.
       

    5. DATA QUALITY CHECKS


      6. In order to make major decision regarding public health and environmental welfare, it is necessary to maintain the integrity of environmental data generated and reliance on the quality control practice incorporated into the methods and procedures. In this direction the first major step is formulation and adoption of Quality Assurance Plan by the laboratory engaged in such work.

      In the past not much work has been done to assess the quality of air. However, the quality and reliability of these data is always surrounded by uncertainty as no quality control and quality assurance (QC/QA) system has been incorporated in the field and laboratory analytical works. The recent ADB TA No: 2847-NEP project a ‘Quality assurance plan’ (QAP) has been included in the demonstration project on baseline air quality monitoring program.

      The NESS and Soil Testing Laboratory both is Accredited laboratory under the NBSM Laboratory Accreditation program is designed following the ISO/IEC Guide 25- Draft 5 ‘General requirements for the Competence of Testing and Calibration Laboratories’. Both laboratories are accredited for competence to carry out analytical tests on environmental samples, using established standard for methods for sampling and testing. The NS Laboratory accreditation program covers competence both in quality management system and technical requirements.

      Under the Accreditation program the participation laboratories, NESS and Soil Testing Laboratory have set-up basic program for laboratory polices, including QA/QC, and standard operating procedures for specific tests.

      A Certified samples from Australia and Hongkong is distributed to the laboratory for data quality checks. Apart from that NBSM also gives the unknown samples to local laboratories for the detection. Comparative study between HVS and LVS was also carried out to assess the sampling efficiency. Both the samplers were run side by side at the same sampling site for 24 hr. with the same starting and ending time. However, NBSM seldom crosschecks the samples due to the various reasons. The comparative result is presented below. Prior to this, not much attention was given regarding the data quality (Kunwar ADB TA No.2847/MOPE, 1999)

      Table 2.7 Data Comparison
       
      Sampling site Laboratory TSP ug/m3 PM10 ug/m3 SO2ug/m3 NO2 ug/m3
      Balaju NESS 278 232 <20 19
      Soil test 373 181 <1 107
      Kalimati NESS 304 240 <20 24
      Soil Test  388 161 <1 33

      But, no Institutional Reference laboratory has yet been established. Thus, in the future such reference laboratory should be established.
       

    6. FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF MONITORING NETWORKS
As described in the previous sections, monitoring network is absent in Nepal. Thus, installation of the monitoring station is essential in the context of our country. The air pollution problems, which come up as a result of public complaint, are primarily the more obvious ones. This may, however divert attention from other less conspicuous pollution problems, which may be more serious in long run. In the country like Nepal, where no monitoring network is established it will be better to start a measurement program in the most heavily polluted part of the area. In a very general sense these measurement show how the situation compares with that of other places, but it soon becomes evident that in order to obtain more precise information, the meteorological conditions have to be taken into account, by application of an atmospheric dispersion model. In the present context this may not be feasible because of the time and expense involved. But on the basis of the data already available, some kind of mental model may be applied in selecting the monitoring stations.

Accordingly, four types of combination were identified for the sampling stations. These are as listed below:

It is not possible to incorporate monitoring stations in all the district of Nepal immediately. But the major municipalities outside the valley should be included. On the basis of population density, industrial activity and traffic flow eight places viz. Biratnagar, Itahari, Birgunj, Hetauda, Narayanghat, Bhairawa, Pokhara and Nepalgunj is identified for installing a monitoring station. Further, at least two to three stations in each place should be monitored, if not as above-mentioned.

Nepal is a landlocked country. China in the North. South, East and West are bordered by India. In which major industrial activities take place. Thus, monitoring stations should be placed towards both the boundaries of India and China. For the transport of pollution PM2.5 should be monitored.

In the valley the parameters like TSP, PM10, SO2, NO2, CO and O3 should be monitored continuously. Outside the valley, to start of with TSP, PM10 should be measured and gradually other parameters that are monitored in the valley should also be included.