This section lists and analyzes various actions proposed for air pollution prevention and abatement. The main air quality issues considered in this section include:
1. Suspended particulate matter in urban environment
2. Indoor air pollution in rural areas
3. Lead pollution in urban areas
A project is already under way to address the lead pollution problem. This section presents an analysis of the first two issues identified above, which entails a discussion on the sources of pollutants, the proposed abatement measures, recommended actions to implement the measures, the responsible agencies, the likely barriers in implementation, the implementing period, the sustainability of the proposed measures, and the expected outcomes.
Evidence suggests that the concentration of suspended particulate
matter in many of the large Pakistani cities is several times greater than the
safe limit set by the World Health Organization (WHO). Particulate air pollution is associated with
a range of health concerns, including effects on the respiratory and
cardiovascular systems, asthma, and mortality. It can be particularly harmful, even fatal, for people with lung
and heart diseases.
Unlike the individual gaseous pollutants which that are
single, well-defined substances, particles in the atmosphere come from of a
wide variety of sources. The
predominant sources of particulate matter in the urban environment are:
a Fuel oil, particularly diesel combustion in vehicles
The prices of petroleum products in Pakistan are centrally regulated by the government. Diesel is the primary fuel used for public transport and freight in the country. Its price is maintained at about 45 percent of the price of gasoline. By comparison, the price of diesel in Europe is typically 75-85 percent of the cost of gasoline. The relatively low cost of diesel in Pakistan provides an incentive to purchase larger vehicles with diesel engines and also to replace petrol engines with diesel engines.
In addition to this, the engines are poorly maintained which results in excessive particulate matter emissions.
a Re-suspended dust from unpaved road shoulders
The shoulders of the
roads in urban areas are often unpaved and devoid of vegetation. Vehicular traffic stirs up the dust, which is
suspended in the atmosphere. Even in
areas with sidewalks or where the shoulders are paved, a significant amount of
dust usually accumulates on the road.
Instead of removing the dust, the municipal staff brushes it to the
edges of the road. During the
course of the day, traffic stirs the dust back on to the road and
into the atmosphere.
a Industrial combustion and process emissions
Industries in the urban areas are often located close to residential and commercial areas. As there are no significant emission controls in the industry, the particulate matter emitted from the fuel combustion and the industrial process adds to the particulate matter pollution in the urban environment.
a Open incineration of municipal waste
A significant quantity of municipal waste is recycled in Pakistan. Recycling is an informal industry. The recycled material includes paper, most types of plastic bottles, metal and glass. The remaining waste—plastic bags, dry leaves, some paper, and food remains—is incinerated. The incineration either takes place in small dumps within the city or in the main municipal dumps located just outside the city limits.
The proposed abatement measures are listed and discussed below.
1. Strengthen
vehicle I&M system
The existing vehicle inspection and maintenance (I&M) system is outdated and cannot cope with the issues of air pollution. Furthermore, the vehicle fitness certification requirements are applicable to public vehicles only. To check the excessive emissions of particulate matter from vehicles, it is important to strengthen the vehicle I&M system.
Actions Required:
c Introduce comprehensive I&M regulations
c Train the existing staff and hire additional staff
c Establish vehicular inspection centers
Responsibilities:
c Provincial governments
c
The National Energy Conservation Centere (ENERCON)
can assist in establishing vehicle inspection centers
Implementation
Period:
c Medium Term (3-5 years)
Indicative Costs:
c US$ 400-800 thousand for establishing inspection centers and training staff
Benefits:
c Reduced particulate matter emissions
c Improved vehicle efficiency and, therefore, reduced fuel consumption
c Reduced emissions of other pollutants, including nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxide.
Sustainability:
c The project will be undertaken mainly in large urban areas by the government. Vehicle emission testing centers can be established in the private sector. Every vehicle tested can be charged an inspection fee.
2. Provide
disincentive against diesel engines in private vehicles
The existing taxation system should be modified to discourage people from converting gasoline vehicles to diesel vehicles.
Actions Required:
c Modify taxation structure
c Strengthen enforcement
Responsibilities:
c Provincial governments
Implementation
Period:
c Short Term (< 1 year)
Indicative Costs:
c None
Benefits:
c Reduced particulate matter emissions
Sustainability:
c Self sustaining.
3. Introduce
CNG buses
Compressed natural gas
(CNG) is a cleaner and cheaper fuel compared tothan
diesel. Although
substantial initial investment is required to convert diesel buses to CNG, this
barrier can be overcome by providing suitable financial incentives. There are already a large number of
compressor stations for CNG in the major cities of Pakistan, so,
availability of natural gas will not be an issue.
Actions Required:
c Provide incentives for import of CNG engines for buses
c Train staff for installation and maintenance of CNG engines
Responsibilities:
c Federal Ministry of Finance
c Hydrocarbon Development Institute (HDIP). The Institute started a pilot project on CNG buses a few years ago and can be the agency responsible for implementation
Implementation
Period:
c Medium Term (3-5 years)
Indicative Costs:
c US$ 10-15 thousand for conversion of each vehicle
Benefits:
c Reduced particulate matter emissions
Sustainability:
c The existing program of installation of CNG kits in petrol engines has shown that, due to lower costs of CNG, conversion is a sustainable option. For diesel buses, the barrier is the relatively high cost of conversion. If proper incentives are provided for conversion, in terms of fuel cost saving exits, the project can be made sustainable.
4. Undertake
road shoulder improvement
Actions Required:
c Pave shoulders of all heavily used roads in the urban areas.
c Introduce vegetation cover in open spaces within a distance of 10 meters from the edge of the road
c Introduce traffic management (for example, speed reduction) in areas that are prone to dust emissions
c
The dust accumulated on the road should be swept and
then removed from the roadside through vacuuming, at least once a week.
Responsibilities:
c Municipal corporations
c Traffic Engineering Bureaus
Implementation
Period:
c Medium Term (3-5 years)
Indicative Costs:
c Varies by city
Benefits:
c Reduced particulate matter emissions
c Generally improved environment
c Better sidewalk facility for pedestrians
Sustainability:
c Considerable initial investment may be required on pavement and appropriate mobile vacuum cleaners. Subsequently, only marginal operation and maintenance costs will be incurred which the municipal corporations should be able to generate from their own resources.
5. Enforce
emissions standards in the industries
The national environmental
quality standards (NEQS) for gaseous emissions were promulgated in 1993. However, untill
today,
these standards have not been completely implemented due to various
administrative and legal problems.
Actions Required:
c Improve enforcement of NEQS, particularly, for industries located close to residential areas
c
Enhance and expand the Self-monitoring and Reporting
(SMART) program to include all industries located near residential areas.
Responsibilities:
c Federal and provincial EPAs
c Chambers of Commerce and Industries
Implementation
Period:
c Medium Term (3-5 years)
Indicative Costs:
c Variable for zoning. Cost for air dispersion models can vary between US$ 100-500 thousand, depending on the complexity and size.
Benefits:
c Improved air quality in the cities
Sustainability:
c Initial investment will be required for development of an air dispersion model.
6. Encourage
use of cleaner fuels in industries
Actions Required:
c Replace furnace oil with natural gas in all industries located close to urban centers
Responsibilities:
c Federal Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Resources
c Federal Ministry of Finance
Implementation
Period:
c Medium Term (3-5 years)
Indicative Costs:
c Variable
Benefits:
c Reduced particulate matter emissions
Sustainability:
c An initial investment by the industries may be required. Since natural gas is a cheaper fuel than furnace oil, the option is likely to be attractive to industries.
7. Stop
open incineration of municipal waste
Actions Required:
c
Introduce regulations to prohibit waste incineration.
c
Introduce municipal waste management concepts: Recycle as much as possible; separate
biodegradable materials (leaves, food remains, etc.) and use them as
fertilizer; compost remaining waste; and develop landfills for disposal.
Responsibilities:
c Provincial governments to introduce regulations
c Municipal governments for enforcement
Implementation
Period:
c Short Term (< 1 year)
Indicative Costs:
c Variable. Costs may be involved in developing landfills and acquiring vehicles for composting and transportation to landfills.
Benefits:
c Reduced particulate matter emissions
Sustainability:
c To make the project more sustainable, the municipal corporations may consider involving the private sector in this project.
Combustion of traditional fuels leads to indoor air pollution in
the rural areas. Evidence suggests that, in some
villages and communities where many households are using traditional fuels
simultaneously, —for example, while preparing meals,
—household
pollution can lead to a ‘neighborhood effect’ which that causes
the outdoor pollutant concentration to increase.[1]
The predominant sources of indoor air pollution in rural areas are combustion of fuelwood, crop residue, and cow dung. Of these, cow dung is the most polluting fuel.
The proposed abatement measures are listed and discussed below.
1.
Introduce improved stoves
Traditional cooking stoves are inefficient in terms of energy use and pollution abatement. Research in developing better stoves has been undertaken.
Actions Required:
c
Identify less- polluting
stove designs
c Increase awareness among rural communities regarding the health impacts of air pollution
c Provide incentives to rural communities to install new stoves
Responsibilities:
c Ministry of Environment, Local Government and Rural Development
c Non-government organizations that have undertaken similar projects can also play an important part.
Implementation
Period:
c Short Term (< 1 year)
Indicative Costs:
c To be estimated. The price of the stoves will probably be less than US$ 20.
Benefits:
c Reduced particulate matter emissions
Sustainability:
c Sustainability depends on whether the communities accept the new stoves and appreciate their benefits. This can create more demand for these stoves. Some members of the community can be trained in building and marketing these stoves.
2.
Improve exhaust in rural kitchens
Actions Required:
c Study designs of rural kitchens to suggest ways and means to improve circulation and exhaust of released gases
c Provide incentives to improve designs
Responsibilities:
c Ministry of Environment, Local Government and Rural Development
c
Non-Government Organizations that have undertaken
similar projects can also play and important part.
Implementation
Period:
c Medium Term (3-5 years)
Indicative Costs:
c Variable.
Benefits:
c Better dispersion of pollutants and reduced concentration
Sustainability:
c Modification in the kitchen exhaust design is a one-time expenditure.
3.
Introduce cleaner fuels in rural areas
The feasibility of introducing liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and natural gas in the rural areas should be studied.
Actions Required:
c Study the feasibility of introducing LPG and natural gas in rural areas
c
Introduce these fuels in areas where it is economically
feasible.
Responsibilities:
c Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Resources
Implementation
Period:
c Medium Term (3-5 years)
Indicative Costs:
c Variable
Benefits:
c Reduced particulate matter emissions
c Improved air quality
c
Reduced reliance on biomass, decrease in deforestation.
Sustainability:
c The sustainability of the project will be determined by how feasible it is.
4.
Introduction of biogas
The feasibility of introducing biogas using animal waste should be studied.
Actions Required:<