The previous chapters highlighted the various issues of concern in an air pollution management system. Environmental concern is often considered a luxury only wealthy nations can afford. In a county like Nepal where the emphasis is on poverty alleviation, air pollution does not seem very important. This is some what reflected in the previous chapters by highlighting the lack of adequate legislative arrangements, monitoring mechanism, emission inventories, assessment methodologies, and the knowledge of effects of air pollution on various receptors. However, the various project specific or research-oriented studies carried out in the country indicate that Nepal does not have the luxury of neglecting the deteriorating air quality of major urban centers.

Air pollution problems are the result of the economic activities. In many countries, the main air pollution issues are associated with the thermal power plants. In case of Nepal, it is not an issue. At the moment, the main air pollution problem of immediate concern is the problem of particulate matters in major urban cities, particularly in the Kathmandu Valley. The major sources include vehicles, industries, construction activities, and the indoor fuel combustion. The ongoing development activities and change in life styles of people specially living in cities has indicated the increase in concentration of other air pollutants (CO, Lead, SO₂, NOx) level in ambient air. Therefore Nepal needs to initiate actions first focusing on preventing the problem at source and then taking the control measures for the abatement of remaining problem.

1. Socio-Economic Options


Nepal's name comes on the list of least developed country in the world. Majority of population depends on agricultural activities and the contribution of manufacturing sector to the national treasury is still in the single digit. The industry sector is dominated by the small and medium enterprises. Tourism, one of the major sources of foreign currency earnings for the nation, is under pressure due to increasing environmental problems, especially in the capital city. Country needs further investments on both manufacturing and tourism sectors to achieve the goal of poverty alleviation. Considering the socio-economic situation of the country, creating a level playing field where environmentally conscious and committed private sector can contribute maximum to the economic development of the nation with due care to the environment should be the thrust of the environmental action programs. With this background, various action programs are proposed based on both the command, control and market based instruments. The philosophy behind the objective is preventing pollution rather than relying on end of the pipe or top of the stack methods.
 

1. Pollution Prevention Programs for Stationary Sources


Although pollution prevention or cleaner production is recognized as a valuable approach for achieving the duel objectives of environmental improvement and industrial development, it must be driven by many supporting systems. Various studies on demonstration of the cleaner production options in many stationary sources in Nepal and other South Asian countries had identified many barriers in the process. Before prescribing the preventive approaches to be followed in Nepal, the identified barriers are briefly outlined here.
 

1. Barriers on Pollution Prevention

• The prevailing policies, strategies and the legislation do not force polluters to pay
• Legislation does not put liability on the emitters
• No ambient, emission and technology standards
• No guidelines on pollution prevention
• No efforts on developing infrastructure on common waste disposals sites

Many industries are unaware of the both environmental and economic benefits of cleaner production practices. They believe that:

• Caring for the environment will always cost money
• Cleaner production is impossible in the short term and the believe that "production processes that are resource misery, more efficient and intrinsically clean costs more- more than dirty technology and associated pollution control system put together".

• Information, which are essential for creating strong political will, effective regulatory mechanism, setting goals and targets, create awareness among industrialists and public, promote clean products, and concern for the environment are in the minimum base.
• Almost total absence of institution providing access to technological information.
• Information dissemination mechanism is confined to very limited project level works only.

• Lack of knowledge and experience with involved ministries and industries of how to manage air pollution issues. Government ministries over rely on external experts.
• No coordinating mechanism between Government, academic institutions and industries in research and development of indigenous technology as well as human resources.
• Lack of financial institutions to finance the cost-intensive waste minimization measures even at the very high prevailing interest rate (14-18%).

1. Proposed Action Programs on Pollution Prevention

Government Policy and Legislative Framework

An Integrated Pollution Control Approach in Environmental Policy, i.e. a shift from the current media-specific pollution control approach adopted in environmental policy to integrated pollution control approach. That is, a mechanism and a legal basis for looking at the impact which a process as a whole has on the environment as a whole.

Investment Policy

• Congenial environment to promote direct investment on the environmental service companies including the provision to encourage joint venture on such companies.
• Promotion to industries manufacturing pollution control equipment.

Government should have a Pollution Control and Management Strategy reflecting the following main components:

• The objectives of the strategy must be to move further up in the waste management hierarchy, i.e. priority on source reduction, reuse/ recovery, treatment and the disposal.
• Short-term and long-term goals with targets.
• Land use policy as per the carrying capacity.
• Certification of environmental management systems and green products.
• Preferences to environment –friendly companies and products.
• Provisions of penalties and liability to polluters.
• Provisions of incentives to pollution prevention and control activities
• Pollution prevention programs in the process of complying the emission standards.

A negotiated approach between Government and private sector on formulating the action programs on areas like:

• introducing pollution charges and incentives;
• time frame for industries to comply the environmental standards;
• management procedure of environmental enhancement fund;
• pilot projects on energy conservation and waste minimization;
• creating information dissemination system;
• assessing training needs and creating institutions for training;
• common treatment facilities development;
• financing of pollution prevention options;
• Self-monitoring mechanism for industries and follow up monitoring system to Government.

Two systems of Environmental Management in the world- Command-and-Control (CAC) and Market-Based-Instruments (MBI) today reflect the "polluter pays" principle. CAC, a traditional system used all over the world including Nepal, relies on legal/technical judgement with standards, permits, monitoring, and sanctions, and tends to be confrontational. While on the other hand, MBI a newer system allows polluters more flexibility to choose when and how to come into compliance and is less confrontational than CAC. MBI cannot stand alone as management system and needs CAC anchors of standards, permits and monitoring with diverse menu of instruments.

This diverse menu of MBIs at the macro level consist of:

• tax holidays (incentives for relocation, etc.);
• waiver of import duties (incentives for cleaner technology);
• taxes on inputs, outputs (incentives to substitute materials, change process);
• waste exchange (incentives to recycle);
• deposit/refund (incentive to recycle);
• emission offsets/"bubbles" (incentive to manage/reduce pollution loading);
• tradable permits (incentive to reduce pollution generated).

1. Institutional Arrangements

Although it was a prioritized program in eighth five-year plan (92-97) and still is in the ninth plan, this is the area, which requires immediate attention of Government to support in formulating an effective pollution control and management strategy. Government need to mobilize local resources and if needed seek foreign assistance in establishing a national environmental data bank with information easily assessable to all on:

• Carrying capacities of major cities
• Zoning atlas of industries
• Meteorological information
• Inventory of solid waste, emissions, and effluents
• Emission control and treatment methods used and their effects on the environment.
• Air pollution and impacts on various receptors

For ISO 14000 Series Implementation

The objective of ISO 14000 is to establish a system to assess, monitor and manage environmental performances, which can be used to promote continual environmental improvement and the prevention of pollution. These standards are not; it must be stressed, mandatory. ISO 14000 is part of a family of environmental standards including, among others ISO 14001, relating to the specification of EMS, ISO 14004, providing guidelines for EMS; ISO 14010-ISO 14012, dealing with environmental auditing and related topics; ISO 14013, dealing with environmental performance evaluation.

Senior Government officials and industrialists had two different views about ISO 14000 certification. One view shows that resources are wasted as little as possible and not only environmental benefit but also increased profitability are achieved with this system in operation. While there is equal concern expressing the doubt about whether ISO 14000 and its accompanying standards are likely to wave in the direction of promoting environmental trade barriers.

Nepal has legislative provisions for introducing the EMS system in industries. Rule 18 (2/f) of Environmental Protection Regulation provides for the requirement of Environmental Management System (EMS) by industries. Government is committed to introduce the EMS and had identified NBSM as the institution for verification and certification of EMS schemes.

NBSM had the capability of verifying and certifying quality standards. There are 29 different industrial products and 79 different industrial units, which have the NS marks. Also companies can certify the ISO 9000 from international companies. Programs for training of existing manpower of NBSM on ISO 14000 certification and to develop the verification mechanism is the prioritized areas. Also local environmental companies and accredited laboratories can be trained to provide services for industries in establishing the EMS.

For Environmental Labeling

Environment Protection Regulation has the provision of providing environmental levels to industrial products. Legislative requirements in many developed countries has forced Nepal also to have National System of giving Eco-labels, especially to export-oriented products. Government with assistance from Finnish Government has already started a three-year project on "Environmental Labeling Scheme for Export Oriented Nepalese Products". The project is expected building up the Eco-labeling Certification System in Nepal. In addition procedure for the development of Eco-labeling criteria, procedural guidelines for assessing and demonstrating compliance, and Eco-labels for two industrial products during the project period will be the outputs of the project. This project will also develop NBSM as the national institute for verification of eco-labels and assist private accredited laboratories to build their capability in this area too.

For Dissemination and Exchange of Information

To date, the dissemination of results of waste minimization opportunities in industries are confined to project levels only. Because of this the outputs of IPCM project (which assessed the clean production opportunities in five different industrial units-- iron and steel, vegetable oil and ghee, carpet, sugar, and textile and demonstrated the identified options in these industries) and Industrial Energy Management Project (a World Bank assisted project, demonstrated the energy conservation opportunities in boilers, furnace and kiln, hotels and other industries also adopted the same methodology of dissemination of the results) can not be successfully converted to other industries. NGOs involved in promoting the clean production techniques in industries are also adopting the same method of dissemination techniques. Therefore, there is no such institution, which had the responsibility to disseminate the information available within the country. Also no institutional arrangement exists so far with the sole responsibility of disseminating and exchanging information to clients on clean technology and processes.

To provide support services and consultancy to industries on waste minimization and energy conservation opportunities a Cleaner Production Center need to be established jointly by Government and FNCCI. The center should establish linkages with institutions like APO; APCTT; INTSET; UNIDO; ICPIC; UNEP to maintain the database and provide information to industries.

Insurance Companies for Environmental Insurance

Among the benefits of Environmental Management System in practice in any industry is the reduced cost of insurance. This is also true for Waste Minimization program, which is the part of the EMS. Therefore Government has to initiate programs to convince insurance companies to take environmental consideration in insuring the companies.

1. NGO- Business Partnership


NGO-Business Environmental Partnership Program under the United States – Asia Environmental Partnership (US-AEP) that provides assistance to Asian non-Governmental organizations (NGOs) has initiated the work to demonstrate environmentally responsible behavior through Clean Technology and Environmental Management (CTEM) in Nepal. Under such program five NGOs had taken detailed studies in partnership with five different industrial units in this year and currently are disseminating the outcome of their work. This is one area where Government has to play central role in bringing industrialists, non-Governmental organizations and donor agencies together.
 

2. More Demonstration Projects on Waste Minimization


As the Government plans to develop compliance plan for industries, more demonstration program on waste minimization practices will help industries and the regulatory authorities to develop such plan and implement. At least one unit from each industrial sector should have such demonstration. Priority should be given to brick-kiln and wool dyeing industries of Kathmandu Valley.
 

3. Action Programs For Private Sector

FNCCI, being the apex body of industries and business organizations in Nepal, need to play a pivotal role in promoting pollution prevention practices in industries. Following are some of the actions that FNCCI can take in this direction:

• To bring a Business Charter for Sustainable Industrial Development in Nepal.
• Co-ordinate among the industry associations to have code of practice in areas like selection of raw materials, reuse and recyclable practices, pre-treatment and treatment technologies.
• Publish booklets and organize seminars and workshops to create awareness among its members.
• Establish and operate a waste exchange program.
• Lobby Government bodies in introducing economic incentives in regulations and creating common treatment facilities in industrial districts and corridors.
• Create a separate cell in FNCCI, specifically, to assist industries in establishing environmental management system.

The conventional approach of cleaning up pollution at the "end of pipe" or the "top of the stack" has seen a gradual shift towards the new approach of reviewing product design, production process and environmental factors together. Today, a proactive approach from industries has no alternatives and in the days to come, industries in Nepal will also be compelled to present its environmental credentials to local as well as the international consumers. Therefore, industries are required to:

• review the environmental impacts of its operation
• introduce corporate environmental policy
• establish environmental management system (EMS)
• work towards certification of EMS
• publish annual environmental reports
• encourage labor unions to participate in the pollution prevention programs

• To act as mediators between Government and business and between business and the community in promoting the environmental values.
• To recognize companies that take outstanding initiatives in implementing the pollution prevention measures.
• To focus its awareness programs on small and medium enterprises.

1. Action programs for Academic and Training Institution

• Academic institutions need to incorporate environmental management subject as a compulsory course on their curriculum especially in business management and engineering fields to produce environmentally aware engineers and managers.
• A partnership between academic institutions-Government-private sector in research and development work for clean indigenous technology development within the country.
• Engineering and business institutions should also design and conduct short-term training courses on environmental management fields.
• Government and donor agencies support to environmental training institutions to organize training programs for regulatory authorities and identified polluters.

1. Role of Mass Media

• Electronic media to provide at least half an hour in a week to highlight the good works of both the national and international companies in environmental protection.
• Citing of best and worst companies, in terms of environmental consideration, annually.

1. Socio-Economic Options (Mobile Sources)


Vehicular air pollution problem is becoming the major air pollution problem in Nepal, particularly in the Kathmandu Valley. It is often good politics to be seen chastising the polluting behavior of the businesses, especially corporations, responsible for stationary sources. It is quite difficult to be taken aggressive stance against the lacks of people whose car cause the pollution, but who also vote. So the spirit of the mobile source program has been to reduce emissions, but in a way that avoids placing an obvious burden on individual drivers.

To examine the mobile-source program, we can express the total quantity of mobile-source emissions in a given period in the following way:

Total quantity of emissions = Number of vehicles * Average kilometers traveled

* Emissions per kilometer

To devise a cost-effective way of reducing the total quantity of emissions, the balance of the three factors on the right side of the above equation according to the equimarginal principle is necessary. The first two factors in the equation have to grow relentlessly and virtually without control. In most of the countries, main emphasis on mobile-source air pollution control program are on the third factor, i.e. reducing the emissions per kilometer. However, Nepal does not have national automobile manufacturing industry and thus has the luxury of controlling of number of vehicles coming in the country simply introducing restrictions. The following proposed action programs on vehicle pollution prevention and control looks into all these three factors.
 

1. Action Programs on Emissions per Kilometer

• The vehicles to enter Nepal must have the type approval certificate complying the limiting values (the limiting values are already mentioned earlier). Together with the type approval certificate the vehicles should also satisfy the prescribed limits in actual road conditions, i.e. the conformity of production.
• This standard takes care of the combustion system of engines of the vehicles. That is full care is taken prior to manufacture of the vehicles.
• Standard also aims to reduce the crankcase as well as the evaporative emissions associated with the vehicles.
• A certificate of durability of the pollution control devices is also required by this standard. The catalytic converters are made compulsory in the gasoline driven vehicles and devices to trap the pollutants in the diesel driven vehicles.
• In addition to this standard, HMG/N has banned the import of second hand as well as the reconditioned vehicles. The main objective behind this action is to disallow the import of vehicles, which are not designed on the environmental grounds.

1. Introduce More Stringent Standards


The above-mentioned mass emission standard is based on the 1992 actions of European Union to curb the vehicular pollution. Country has to import vehicles and therefore has the luxury of choosing the best options available. In many developed countries, the EURO –1 standard have been replaced by the EURO-2 and EURO-3 standard so far and there is program of introducing EURO-4 standard by 2005. Most countries, which are supplying vehicles in European and American markets, have vehicles, which comply these latest standards. And therefore for a country like Nepal, which totally depends on import of vehicles, to introduce the latest standards is best option. The latest vehicular mass emission standards already enforced in developed countries are proposed in table 3.0.

Table 3.0 Vehicle Mass emission(For Passenger Cars)
 

Applicability	EURO-2 grams per kilometer	EURO-3 grams per kilometer
HC & NOx CO PM*	0.9 1 0.1	0.5 0.5 0.04

* for diesel vehicles only; source: EEC 91/441 directive and amendments
 

2. Introduce National Fuel Quality Standard

• unleaded gasoline to facilitate the use of catalytic converter
• low sulfur content diesel to reduce the soot problems
• high heating value so that the vehicle will have adequate range between refueling, without carrying an excessive fuel weight
• A high fuel density so that the fuel storage container will be of acceptable size
• good antiknock properties
• ability to vaporize in air-fuel system
• good storage stability, limited toxicity

• A national fuel quality standard on the basis of European and Indian reference fuel specifications
• Upgrade the national laboratories (Nepal Oil Corporation; Nepal Bureau of Standard and Metrology) with regard to staff capability and equipment to control the defined national standards of vehicle fuel quality (petrol, diesel,) including LPG and lubricants.
• Prepare and launch a control program ensuring that the purchased fuel quality is in accordance with quality of the fuel contracted to be provided by the refinery and that the fuel subsequently distributed to vehicle owners by the distributors.

1. Programs on reducing the dust on roads

• Link of the road conditions with the deteriorating air quality and seek foreign assistance in upgrading the road conditions as part of the environmental protection program.
• Allocating of budget from national treasury on road maintenance.
• Coordinating mechanism between different services companies on the installation of facilities like electricity lines, telephone lines, sewage system, and drinking water pipes. These are aimed to reduce the dust particles on the roads.
• Better solid waste collection system to avoid the waste to be emitted into the atmosphere.

1. Promotion of electric vehicles and alternative fuels

• Detailed study of using electrical buses in the ring road of the Kathmandu Valley
• Programs on upgrading the existing trolley bus system
• Study to explore the possibility of trolley buses between major cities in the Terai (e.g. Birganj-Hetauda- Bharatpur; Bharatpur- Butwal; Dharan-Biratnagar)
• Explore the possibility of recycling system for worn out lead acid batteries or develop the safe hazardous waste disposal facility to promote the ongoing battery operated vehicles.
• Explore the possibility of imports of compressed natural gas (comparatively the most clean fuel) and refilling stations.
• Sugar industries are becoming the major industries of Nepal and therefore the possibility of using alcohol (from molasses of sugar industries) in the gasoline engines is one of the area for investigation.

1. Awareness programs

• From the table 3.1 it is clear that lean combustion greatly reduces the CO and HC emissions compared to rich combustion. Drivers often tuned for rich combustion for more smoothly start and running of vehicles but these operations greatly increased emissions. One of the step to check emissions is to make aware the drivers to operate in lean mode for reasons of both pollution reduction and fuel economy.

Source: De Nevers, Air Pollution Control Engineering, 1995

• Much if not the most CO and HC emissions of a typical driving cycle occurs in the first minute or two while the engine is cold. To start the cold engine one requires very rich mode (air fuel ratio). This rich condition combined with the cold walls of the combustion chamber, leads to very high CO and HC emissions. During this period the catalyst installed to treat these pollutants does not "light off" until it has been warmed by hot exhaust gas, so these emissions pass untreated to the atmosphere.
• Develop code of practice for auto repair workshops and vehicle owners to achieve reduction of emissions by cost-effective engine maintenance.

• The existing awareness programs on road crossing are basically aimed to prevent the accident. The frequent change on speed of vehicles (acceleration and retardation on speeds) requires rich combustion mode, which increases the emissions per kilometer of vehicle distance traveled. Public education programs on road crossing should also include the environmental benefits.
• Publicize the environmental benefits of electrical vehicles to encourage public to use such vehicles.

1. Control on Number of Vehicles

• Phasing out program for old vehicles (preferably more than 15 years old vehicles) from the Kathmandu Valley.
• Government restriction on purchasing of new vehicles by Government ministries and corporations.
• A mechanism has to be developed to permit import of vehicles for commercial purposes. The numbers should not be more than the numbers of vehicles displaced from the Valley.
• As the majority of vehicles are two wheelers, a permit system limiting the number of such vehicles on importers has to be introduced.
• Increase in custom duties on vehicles to be registered and operated in the Valley
• Increase in the tax on vehicles as per their age.
• Introduction of more stringent standards for vehicles to ply in the Valley.

1. Reducing the average kilometers traveled by vehicles

• increase in custom and other taxes on passenger cars
• nominal customs and other duties on new buses
• less designated parking spaces and increase in parking charges
• special roots for buses during peak traffic hours
• development of separate cycle driving roots

1. Technological Options on Air Pollution Control

As discussed in earlier chapters, Nepal is still to enforce the emission standards for various stationary sources. However, works in developing different emission standards for local industries are in the process. Following issues must be considered prior to introducing such emission standards:

• the knowledge of the carrying capacities of various urban centers
• the prospect of relocation of industries (for example more stringent standards in already polluted areas and less stringent standards for remote areas)
• the size of enterprises (taking into account the large as well as small and medium enterprises)
• time frame for complying the standard (short time in urban centers as compared with rural areas)
• cost-benefit aspects (following the principle of marginal abatement cost)
• national policy on attracting direct foreign investment (generally the multinational companies prefer for internationally compatible standards to maintain their corporate environmental credentials while the local investors prefer for less stringent standards)

And pollution prevention programs (requiring actions from industries) on brick-kiln, and industries using small boilers.

1. Selection of Pollution Control Technologies (supply side options)


In the impact assessment chapter, a seven-step methodology is recommended for selecting the best practicable environmental options and therefore the selection of pollution control technologies should be based on those principles. Here some references for selection of pollution control equipment are outlined. Table 3.2 presents different methods usually practiced for controlling various gaseous and particulate pollutants. Table 3.2 highlights the gas-solid removal technologies with collection efficiencies. And table 3.3 shows VOC removal efficiencies of different technologies.

Table 3.1 Air emissions control technologies
 

Method	Organic vapors	Inorganic vapors	Particulate matter
Incineration	a
Adsorption	a
Condensation	a
Absorption	a	a
Filtration			a
ESP			a
Scrubbers		a	a

Source: Gerard Kiely: Environmental Engineering (ISBN 0-07-709127-2)

Table 3.2 Technologies of gas-solid
 

Technology	Applicable particle size (µm)	Efficiency
Gravity setting chamber Cyclone Spray tower Filter ESP	>150 >10 >3 >0.5 >0.001	95% on particles > 300 µm 80% on particles < 20 µm 98% on particles > 5 µm 95-99% on particles < 5µm 80-90%

Source: Gerard Kiely: Environmental Engineering (ISBN 0-07-709127-2)

Table 3.3: VOC removal efficiencies
 

Technology	Inlet concentration (ppm)	Efficiency (%)
Condensation     Absorption     Adsorption     Thermal incineration Catalytic incineration	>5000 >2500 >500 >5000 >500 >200 >5000 >1000 >200 >100 >20 >100 >50	95+ 90+ 50+ 99+ 95+ 90+ 99+ 95+ 90+ 99+ 95+ 95+ 90+

Source: Gerard Kiely: Environmental Engineering (ISBN 0-07-709127-2)
 
 

2. Demand Side Management

• Electricity load management in industries
• Furnace and Kiln efficiency improvement
• Hotel lighting efficiency improvement
• Energy savings in industrial boilers
• Co-generation assessment in sugar industries.

• Emission charges on fossil fuel users
• Time of use (TOU) electricity tariff
• Incentives and disincentives system as per the efficiency of technologies (for example electric motors, boilers, furnaces)
• Inclusion of energy service companies as the nationally prioritized category of industries.
• Provision of energy conservation fund (soft loans for implementation of energy saving options)
• Outreach facilities and awareness.

1. Regional Action Programs

The waste stream of thermal power plants and vehicles constitute the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen in significant quantities, which have transboundary effects in the form of acid deposition.

South Asian countries had reached in agreement in Male to initiate combined efforts to tackle this transboundary environmental problem. To bring this commitment into practice following short term and long term programs have to be initiated with objective of fulfilling the right of citizen to breath the clean air.

Short-term programs:

• An information exchange mechanism on the inventory of various pollution sources and pollutants.
• Common programs on meteorological study of the region
• Identification of grid system and model for air quality concentration.
• Mobilization of national research institutions in assessing the acid deposition and associated impact on various receptors.

• An agreement between countries to exchange the natural resources or the power with the objective of meeting the increasing demand and reducing the pollutants at source.
• An agreement for emission trading (based on per capita emission).