2.1 Physiography

The physical framework of Pakistan has been built by two major geomorphic processes that have produced two distinct physiographic entities:

1. The Western Highlands produced by the mountain building movement extended from the Makran Coast in the south to the Pamir Plateau in the extreme north. 2. The Indus Plains resulting from the deposition of sediments from the Indus river and its tributaries.

The Western Highlands cover most of Balochistan, NWFP, Northern Areas (Gilgit Agency) and parts of the Panjab. These can be further divided into five physiographic entities:

• Mountainous North
• Koh-e-Safaid and Waziristan Hills
• Sulaiman and Kirthar Mountains
• Balochistan Plateau
• Potowar Plateau and the Salt Ranges

The Mountainous North covers the northern parts of Pakistan and comprises parallel mountain ranges intervened by narrow and deep river valleys. East of the Indus River, the mountain ranges in general run from east to west. To its west - from north to south - run the following important mountain ranges:

• The Himalayas
• The Karakorams
• The Hindu Kush

The western most parts of the Himalayas fall in Pakistan. The sub-Himalayas - the southern most ranges - do not rise to great heights (600 - 1200 masl). The Lesser Himalayas lie to the north of the sub-Himalayas and rise to 1,800 - 4,600 masl. The Great Himalayas are located north of the Lesser Himalayas. They attain snowy heights (of more than 4,600 m).

The Karakoram Ranges in the extreme north rise to an average height of 6,100 m. Mount Goodwin Austin (K-2) - the second highest peak in the world - is 8,610 m and located in the Karakorams.

The Hindu Kush Mountains take off the western side of the Pamir Plateau that is located to the west of the Karakorams. These mountains take a southerly turn and rise to snowy heights. Some of the peaks rise to great heights like Noshaq (7,369 m), and Tirich Mir (7,690 m).

The Koh-e-Safaid Ranges have an east-west trend and rise to an average height of 3,600 m. They are commonly covered with snow. Sikeram, the highest peak in Koh-e-Safaid Ranges rises to 4,760 m. Similarly, the elevation of Waziristan Hills ranges from 1,500 and 3,000 m.

Some rivers flowing in the region have formed passes through which armies, peoples and cultures have moved. Among them, the Khyber Pass is the most important. It connects Peshawar in Pakistan to Kabul in Afghanistan.

The Sulaiman-Kirthar Mountain Ranges extending from south of Gomal River, lie between Balochistan Plateau and the Indus Plains. On reaching the Murre-Bugti Hills, they turn northward and extend up to Quetta. Further south, they meet the Kirthar Mountains, which merge in to the Kohistan area of Sindh. The Sulaiman Mountains rise to an average height of 600 m that decreases southward. Takht-e-Sulaiman (3,487 m) and Takatu (3,470 m) are the highest peaks of the Sulaiman Ranges.

The Balochistan Plateau is located west of the Sulaiman-Kirthar Mountains. Its western part is dominated by a number of sub-parallel ranges: the Makran Coast Range (600 m), and the Central Makran Range (900 - 1200 m). The highest peak Ras Koh, attains a height of 3010 m.

The Potwar Plateau and the Salt Range region are located to the south of the mountainous north and lie between the Indus river on the west and the Jhelum river on the east. Its northern boundary is formed by the Kala Chitta Ranges and the Margalla Hills and the southern boundary by the Salt Ranges. The Kala Chitta Range rises to an average height of 450 - 900 m and extends for about 72 km. The main Potwar Plateau extends north of the Salt Range. It is an undulating area 300 - 600 m high.

The Salt Ranges have a steep face towards the south and slope gently in to the Potwar Plateau in the north. They extend from Jhelum River up to Kalabagh where they cross the Indus river and enter the Bannu district and rise to an average height of 750 - 900 m. Sakesar Peak (1,527 m) is the highest point of the Salt Ranges.

The Indus Plains have been formed by the alluvium laid down from the river Indus and its tributaries. The Indus is a mighty stream about 2,900 km long with catchment areas of about 963,500 sq. km. From its source it flows from east to west between the Karakorams and the Himalayas. It receives a number of tributaries from the west: Kabul river, Kurram, Tochi and the Gomal river. The left side tributaries are Jhelum, Ravi and Sutlej. They combine at Panjnad. The swelling of Indus and its tributaries during summer causes floods. Sometimes the rivers change their courses and spread fertile silts in some areas and coarse sands in others. All these processes have built the Indus plains and have made them agriculturally very important. The Indus Plains slope down from north to south. In the north, they rise to about 300 m and drop to about 75 m near Panjnad in the Panjab. From there, they slope gently and cascade in to the Arabian Sea.

The Indus Plains can be divided into the following physiographic entities:

• Piedmont Plains
• Alluvial Terraces
• Active Flood Plains
• Deltaic Plains
• Rolling Sand Plains and Dunes

Extensive Piedmont Plains have developed between the Indus river and the Sulaiman-Kirthar mountains. They have been built by the alluvial fans along the Indus flowing eastward down the mountains. Most of the rivers rolling down the mountains become active only when rainfall takes place. They flow down the slopes swiftly. On reaching the foothills, they loose speed and drop part of their load within the streams, which split into a number of narrow channels. These channels become so overburdened (with sediment load) that they die before they reach the Indus towards which they flow. The gravel, sand and silt thus deposited, form the alluvial fans. The Piedmont plains, dominated by the alluvial fans, provide good soils and suitable topography for agriculture.

Alluvial Terraces are depositional and are separated from the adjoining flood plains by the river-cut bluffs ranging in height from 5 to 15 m. The sediments of the terraces are called old alluvium and are composed of compact calcareous silty clays.

Active Flood Plains are narrow strips of land along the Indus and its tributaries varying from 24 to 40 km in width. They are inundated almost every year, covered with rich alluvium and are suitable for agriculture. Old flood plains cover extensive areas between the active flood plains and the desert areas in the lower Indus Valley.

The Deltaic Plains have in fact been built by the Indus as a large delta at its mouth. The apex of the delta is to the south of Thatta. The area bounded by the Kalri and Pinyari, the two distributaries of the Indus, is taken as the Indus Delta. The delta is scarred with old and present channels of the Indus. At the coast, barrier bars have developed. There are extensive mud flats sliced by the tidal channels. The inland limit of the mud flats is marked by a cliff.

An extensive area in the south-west of Pakistan is covered with Rolling Sand Plains and Dunes. It is separated from the Indus valley by the dry channels of Ghaggar River. This extensive desert is called Cholistan in the Panjab and Thar in Sindh. It is not drained by any perennial stream. Therefore wind action is dominant in the formation of its topography. A vast expanse of sand plains with dunes dominates the scene. Agriculturally, it is a poor area. Map 9 presents the highlands of Pakistan and the Indus Plains.

2.2 Climate

Depending on the topography, there is an extreme variation in the temperature of Pakistan. The country is essentially arid except for the southern slopes of the Himalayas and the sub-mountainous tract where the annual rainfall varies between 760 and 1270 mm. This area has humid sub-Tropical climate. In the extreme north - because of great heights - Highland climate prevails. The controlling factors of the climate are:

1. The sub-Tropical location of Pakistan that tends to keep the temperature high, particularly in summer. 2. The oceanic influence of the Arabian Sea that keeps down the temperature contrast between summer and winter at the coast.

3. Higher altitudes in the west and north that keep the temperature down throughout the year.

4. The Monsoon winds that bring rainfall in summer.

5. The Western Depression originating from the Mediterranean region and entering Pakistan from the west that brings rainfall in winter. These cyclones make a long land journey and are thus robbed of most of the moisture by the time they reach Pakistan. 6. A temperature inversion layer at a low elevation of about 1,500 m in the south during the summer, that does not allow the moisture-laden air to rise and condensation to take place.

2.2.1 Temperature Pakistan can be divided into four broad temperature regions:

1. Hot summer and mild winter: 32o C or more in summer and 10 to 21o C in winter.

2. Warm summer and mild winter: 21 - 32oC in summer and 10 to 21oC in winter.

3. Warm summer and cool winter: 21 - 32oC in summer and 0 - 10oC in winter.

4. Mild summer and cool/cold winter: Summer temperature between 10 and 21oC and winter temperature between 0 and 10oC.

Considering 10-year data (1974 - 1983), Table 2 contains the mean maximum and mean minimum temperatures at some selected meteorological centres: Table 2. Maximum and Minimum Temperatures (oC)

2.2.2 Analysis of Temperature Regimes Proper analysis for the calculation of temperature regimes could not be carried out because of the lack of data and the proper methodology: application of linear equation, the interpolation of the data on to the area by using raster GIS Module and a Digital Elevation Model (DEM). This is then followed by the removal of the influence of altitude on the data through the 0 masl altitude-equivalent temperature at each station.

Based on the maximum and minimum temperatures, the Longitude and Latitude, Maps 10 and 11 have been created using Surfer and then transferring the image to ARC/INFO. Surfer is a grid-based contouring, 3-D surface plotting programme. It interpolates the irregularly-shaped XYZ data on to a regularly spaced grid and places it in a grid used to produce contour maps and surface plots.

2.2.3 Rainfall

The major part of Pakistan experiences dry climate. Humid conditions prevail but over a small area in the north. The whole of Sindh, most of Balochistan, the major part of the Panjab and central parts of Northern Areas receive less than 250 mm of rainfall in a year. Northern Sindh, southern Panjab, north-western Balochistan and the central parts of Northern Areas receive less than 125 mm of rainfall. True humid conditions appear after the rainfall increases to 750 mm in plains and 625 mm in highlands.

There are two sources of rainfall in Pakistan: the Monsoon and the Western Depression. The former takes place from July to September and the latter, December to March.

Based on the average rainfall (in mm) between 1974 and 1983, Table 3 attempts to give a picture of the quantity of precipitation received in Pakistan. Table 3. Mean Annual Rainfall (mm)

2.2.4 Analysis of Precipitation Regimes

Rainfall pattern and moisture regimes are subject to limitations: there is no clear altitudinal trend of precipitation. As an example, the Dry Temperate Zone in the north of Pakistan and to the west of Balochistan (bordering Afghanistan) are highlands and mountainous regions but do not receive even a fraction of the precipitation of what the Moist Temperate Zone or even the sub-Tropical areas receive. Further, a relationship needs to be built between the altitude, temperature, and the potential evaporation: the higher the altitude, the lower the temperature and hence the evaporation.

A simple methodology was therefore, applied by using the Mean Annual Rainfall data of the above stations and their geographic location. The software used was Surfer and later, ARC/INFO (Map 12).

2.3 Soils

Aridity prevailing over major part of Pakistan is the main climatic characteristic that affects its soils. This has resulted in limiting the soil moisture and scantiness of vegetative cover. Soils in Pakistan are rich in Basic but poor in Nitrogenous matter.

2.3.1 Parent Material

The soils of Pakistan are derived from two types of parent materials:

1. Alluvium, Loess and wind reworked sands. They are of mixed mineralogy. 2. Residual material obtained from weathering of underlying rocks. Most of the rocks are Calcareous . In some areas, Granites have produced non-calcareous soil material. Very small quantities of salts are released from most of the rocks. The soils are therefore, essentially non-saline.
 

2.3.2 Soil Classification

The soils of Pakistan have acquired distinct characteristics from the parent material and by their mode of formation. The river-laid sediments have developed into Alluvial Soils. The desert sands have turned into distinct soils. The hills, mountains and the plateaus have produced Residual Soils with patches of Alluvial, Loess and other soils. Accordingly, the soils of Pakistan can be classified into the following six types:

• Alluvial Soils of the Flood Plains
• Alluvial Soils of the Bar Uplands
• Soils of the Piedmont Plains
• Desert Soils
• Soils of Potwar Plateau
• Soils of Western Hills

Based on these broad classes, Table 4 presents areas under different soil types in Pakistan. Map 13 presents the 26 broad Soil Types of Pakistan.

2.4 Population

The population of Pakistan is growing at a very rapid rate. From 16.6 million in 1901, it increased to 84.3 million in 1981 (the last official census year): a five-fold increase in 80 years (Table 5).

Table 5 reveals that the population of Pakistan was doubled from 1901 - 1951. It doubled again but during 1951 to 1972 thus resulting doubling time from 50 years to . Between 1972 and 1981, it increased by another 28.3%. With the officially projected growth rate of 3.1% per year (1981 onwards), the population of Pakistan will be more than 150 million by the turn of the century. Table 5 Population of Pakistan (millions) (top)

* Projected

The alarming increase in the population from 1961 onwards can be attributed due mainly to the improved health conditions causing reduction in the infant mortality rate. 2.5 Forests and Land Cover

Forests have been central in human history in that they provide critical ecosystem services for climate, range and forage, wildlife habitat, biotic diversity, watershed protection, soil erosion control, etc.

Humans have left an impressive mark on the world over the past several centuries. With the dramatic growth in population - from around 1 billion in 1800 to 5 billion today- pressure on the land has greatly increased. The need for greater food production has led to a massive increase in cropland. By early 1990’s, almost 40 percent of earth’s land surface had been converted to croplands and permanent pastures. This conversion has occurred largely at the expense of forests.

Of the four forest cover percentage groups (> 70%, 40-69%, 10-39%, 0-9%), Pakistan lies in the last category: 0-9%. Between 1981 and 1990, there had been a 4.3% decrease in forest areas of the Tropical Asia and Oceania, which Pakistan is a part of. During the same period, a 0.6% deforestation had been occurring each year. This is an alarming situation and needs to be stalled and then reversed, if possible.

As recognition of the multiple values of forests has grown, so have concerns for their disappearance. In Pakistan, subtropical, temperate, riverain and mangrove forests are being lost because of questionable land use practices and the ever-increasing demand for timber and firewood. As a result, more responsible management approaches are being demanded that can accommodate complex economic and ecological needs. Designation of selected forestlands as national parks, area for agro-forestry practices and the development of plantations and afforestation practices are needs of the hour. (top)

Total Forest Area under the control of the Forest Departments (including Azad Kashmir and the Northern Areas) is 4.26 million hectares. The per capita forest area is only 0.037 ha compared to the world average of ONE ha. Main reason for this is that more than 70% land area of Pakistan is Arid and semi-Arid with annual rainfall of 250-500 mm: too low and erratic to sustain natural vegetation and to plan afforestation/regeneration programmes.

Due to diverse ecological conditions, a variety of forest types exist in the country. There are natural forests growing in the moist-and-dry temperate zones and on the foothills. On the other extreme are the mangrove forests in the Indus Delta and the Arabian Sea. Irrigated plantations and to some extent, riverain forests are man-made.

Of 4.26 million hectares (of forest area), only 1.12 million hectares (26.3%) produce timber and firewood: the rest are meant to protect the watershed areas and the erodable lands.

Besides forests, the forest departments also control 6.4 million hectares of Rangelands. In fact, there are about 51.3 million hectares of Rangelands in Pakistan. These ranges provide sustenance to livestock population of about 98.6 millions. Being under incessant grazing pressure, these lands are producing hardly 10-15% of their actual potential. Over-grazing has intensified the problems of desertification resulting in accelerated soil erosion and degradation of plant communities.

Table 6 presents the Forest Area by Types and Rangelands in Pakistan (including Azad Kashmir and the Northern Areas). Table 6. Forest Areas and Rangelands (in ha.)

There are three types of areas that have been declared as Protected.

National Parks
Wildlife Sanctuaries
Game Reserves

The National Parks are only meant for recreational purposes where no other activity can take place.

In Wildlife Sanctuaries, no hunting is allowed as they have the endangered wildlife species.

As for the Game Reserves, hunting is allowed but only in certain months in a year and after a hunting permit has been obtained from the Wildlife Department.

In Pakistan, there are 10 National Parks, 82 Wildlife Sanctuaries and 83 Game Reserves. They occupy a hefty 9% land area of Pakistan (Table 7).

2.7 Agriculture

Agriculture in Pakistan dates back to Neolithic times. It formed the base of the well-known Indus Valley Civilization. Of late, its contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has decreased from 52% in 1950-51 to just 24% in 1993-94. This is primarily because of higher growth rates registered by other sectors, particularly, the Manufacturing and Mining.

Pakistan is a land of subsistence agriculture. The main emphasis is on the production of food crops that account for about 70% of the cropped area. Some cash crops (cotton, sugarcane, tobacco, etc.) are grown to meet other needs. About 23% of the total land area is cultivated. Still, the cropped area has increased from 14.6 million hectares in 1947-48 to about 22.15 million hectares in 1993-94: a hefty increase of about 52%.

For the purpose of this study, the land area of Pakistan has been divided into FIVE major categories: Reported Area; Forest Area; Cropped Area, Cultivable Waste; Unreported Area. The data has a time interval of 46 years: sufficient to determine the changed landuse pattern, if any (Table 8). Table 8. Land use Pattern of Pakistan (million ha)

There has been an appreciable increase in Forest-and Cropped Areas. A lot of wasteland has been converted to productive uses. The un-Reported Area has consequently reduced.

According to a map prepared by the Soil Survey of Pakistan (published in 1988), nine major land use classes have been identified. Table 9.

Map 14 presents the Land use Categories for the four provinces of Pakistan.

Compared to the data provided by the Forest and Agriculture Departments, the data of Soil Survey Department (Table 9) differs in almost all the landuse categories. This warrants a serious re-classification of the present landuse status. (top)

2.7.1 Crop Calendar

Pakistan has two basic crop seasons: Winter Season and Summer Season. The Winter Season crops include Cotton, Rice, Sugarcane, Maize, Sugar Beet and Gram. The Summer crops include Wheat, Millet, Sorgham, Barley, Tobacco, and various Pulses. Table 10 presents the areas (in 000 ha) under different crops and their production (in 000’ tonnes) in 1993-94.

Table 10. Area and Production of Winter and Summer Crops

	Winter Crops		Summer Crops
CROPS	Area	Production	Area (ha.)	Production  (tonnes)
Cotton	2,805	1,440	-	-
Rice	2,187	3,995	-	-
Sugarcane	963	44,427	-	-
Sugar Beet	7	243	-	-
Maize	878	1,213	-	-
Gram	1,045	411	-	-
Pulses	432	202	-	-
Wheat	-	-	8,034	15,213
Millet	-	-	303	137
Sorgham	-	-	365	212
Tobacco	-	-	57	100
Barley	-	-	151	212

2.8 National Energy Consumption

Like many other developing countries, Pakistan has not yet fully harnessed its energy potential. As a consequence, its national energy consumption is very low. With an annual growth rate of 3.9%, the energy consumption increased from 19.5 million TOE in 1980-81 to 32.2 million TOE in 1993-94: a gross increase of about 65% and a yearly increase of more than 3.9% (Table 11). The per capita consumption - during the same period - went up from 10.47 GJ to 11.10 GJ.

Table 11. National Energy Consumption by Source (000’ TOE)

Source	1980-81	Percent	1993-94	Percent
Commercial:	10,868	55.6	20,355	63.2
Oil	4,267	21.8	9,667	30.0
Gas	3,200	16.4	6,082	18.9
Coal	691	3.5	1,562	4.8
Electricity	2,710	13.9	3,044	9.5
non-Commercial	8,660	44.4	11,840	36.8
Wood	4,939	25.3	6,506	20.2
Agric. Residue	3,721	19.1	5,334	16.6
TOTAL:	19,528	100.0	32,205	100.0